ENCYCIQBEDIA JRLKVJENTH K1MT5VN m •OvXt 11 I I tl • m •>'- • ;-.;- •_ • 1 ' • Hi _ THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH. EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. ten 1777—1784. eighteen 1788—1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815—1817. twenty 1823—1824. twenty-one 1830—1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875—1889. ninth edition and eleven lupplementary volume*, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, ipio — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE A II righti reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME IX EDWARDES to EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 3 2nd Street 1910 . A EL'S Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company. INITIALS USED IN VOLUME IX. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. A.T. A. C». A. C. McG. A. E. G.* A. E. H. A. E. H. L. A. PL* A F K. A. P. P. A. Co.* A.HL A. H. 0. A. H. S. A. H.-S. A. J. C. A. Mw. ARTHUR AUGUSTUS TILLEY, M.A. Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages, King's College, Cambridge. Author The Literature of the French Renaissance; &c. ARTHUR CAYLEY, LL.D., F.R.S. See the biographical article: CAYLEY, ARTHUR. ARTHUR CUSHMAN MCGIFFERT, M.A., PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. Author of, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age; &c. Editor of the Historic Ecclesia of Eusebms. REV. ALFRED ERNEST GARVIE, M.A., D.D. Principal of New College, Hampstead. Member of the Board of Theology and . the Board of Philosophy, London University. Author of Studies in the Inner Life of Jesus ; &c. A. E. HOUGHTON. Formerly Correspondent of the Standard in Spain. Author of Restoration of the - Bourbons in Spain. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Sedleian . Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Hon. . Fellow of Queen's College. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Secretary of the London Mathematical Society. ALEXANDER FISHER. [ Expert Examiner to the Board of Education, London. Gold Medallist, Barcelona. J Hon. Associate, Royal College of Art. Author of The Art of Enamelling on Metals; \ &c. A. F. KENDRICK. Keeper of the Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.Soc. f Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Professor of English History in the University I of London. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893-1901."] Author of England under the Protector Somerset; Life of Thomas Cranmer;&c. Estlenne. - Equation. Euseblus: of Caesarea. Eschatology. Espartero. Elasticity. Enamel. Embroidery (in part). Elizabeth, Queen; Eiuser; Englefleld; English History (VII. and XIII.). Erastus. REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. ARTHUR HASSALL, M.A. Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Author of A Handbook of European History; The Balance of Power; &c. Editor of the 3rd edition of T. H. Dyer's History of Modern Europe. ALAN HENDERSON GARDINER, M.A. Joint Editor of the New Hieroglyphic Dictionary, Berlin. Formerly Worcester^ Egypt: Ancient Religion. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. REV. A. H. SAYCE, Lrrr.D., LL.D. f See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. \ Europe: History (in part). Elam; Esar-haddon. -j Elburz. Si* A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. Professor of New Testament and Church History at the United Independent J pni.Ho r, . ,..i\ College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University and Member of 1 *pl* e u" fan>- Mysore Educational Service. L ALLEN MAWER, M.A. r Professor of English Language and Literature, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on- J BH»I.«H r\r \ Tyne. Fellow of Gonvilie and Caius College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer in ] tn8»na (V.). English at the University of Sheffield. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. 1978 VI A. McM. A. H. C. A. M. Cl. A.N. A.Se.* A. S. C. A. W. H.* A. W. R. C. B. C. EL C. E. N. R. C. F. B. C. H. Ha. C. W. C. 0. C. W. W. D. G. H. D. H. D. J. M. D. H. W. D. S. M.* INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES ALEXANDER MACMORRAN, K.C., M.A. [ Bencher of the Middle Temple. Author of works on the Local Government Act "j England: X. (in part). 1888; Local Government Act 1894; London Government Act 1899; &c. AGNES MARY CLERKE. See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. Encke. AGNES MURIEL CLAY (MRS WILDE). Formerly Resident Tutor of Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford. Joint Author of Sources -J Eupatridae. of Roman History, 133-70 B,C. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. See the biographical article : NEWTON, ALFRED. / Eider; I Emeu. ADAM SEDGWICK, M.A:, F.R.S. Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science and Technology, London. J Embryology. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Trinity College, Cambridge. Professor of Zoology in the University of Cambridge, 1907-1909. ALAN SUMMERLY COLE, C.B. Assistant Secretary for Art, Board of Education, 1900-1908. Author of Ancient -I Embroidery (in part). Needle Point and Pillow Lace; Embroidery and Lace; Ornament in European Silks; &c. ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Einhard. f Ejectment; tjUUVI/bA VV UUL» JXJLIN1UIN, IVA.n., LlU.U. IT M + Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws \ * of England. l Eminent Domain. REV. CHARLES BOUTELL, M.A. (1812-1877). Author of English Heraldry; A Manual of British Archaeology; &c. Effigies (in part). SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in- Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate ; Agent and Consul-General at J Ephthalites; Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900—1904. Formerly Fellow | Esthonia (in part). of Trinity College, Oxford. Author of Turkey in Europe; Letters from the Far East; &c. Founder of the \ Epee de Combat. English Finance. CHARLES EDMUND NEWTON ROBINSON, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Epee Club, London. Author of The Golden Hind; &c. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International Trade. I CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. (~ Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member^ Ellgenius HI. and IV. of the American Historical Association. CHARLES WILLIAM CHADWICK OMAN, M.A., F.S.A. r Chichele Professor of Modern History, Oxford University. Fellow of All Souls' College. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Madrid \ English History (I., II., III., Academia de la Historia. Author of The Art of War in the Middle Ages; The Great IV., V., VI.). Revolt of 1381 ; Warwick the King-maker ; &c. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary . to the North American Boundary Erzerum (in part) • Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Commis- J ,, . ,. . A' sion. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General of 1 trzingan I** Part)', Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Lord Euphrates (m part). Clive;&c. I DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. r Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, and Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Fellow Egin; of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 and 1903 ; J '„ . Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British 1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. DAVID HANNAY. School at Athens, J j Ensenada; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, J, * . ' „ 1217-1688 ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. \ Espagnols sur Mer. D. J. MATTHEWS. r Hydrographer, Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of the United \ English Channel (in part). Kingdom, Plymouth. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. r Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign !*_..„*. MnJ,,« m,tnr* Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International J Egy.ptl *£—* Htstory and Officer de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint Editor of New Volumes] (m Part>> (loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and the \ Europe: History (in part). Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c. DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., p.Lirr. r Egypt: History (Mahommedan Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic \ pfr;ntf). Papyri of the Bodleian Library; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam; Cairo, Jerusalem 1 —.f_ and Damascus. I Ethiopia. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii E. A. S.* EDWARD ANTHONY SPITZKA. f Professor of General Anatomy, Jefferson Medical College and Hospital, Philadelphia. I Electrocution Mrmber of Association 01 American Anatomists, American Anthropologists' | Association, &c. I E. Br. ERNEST BARKER, M.A. f Electors; Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern History at, St John's College, Oxford. Formerly -s Emperor; FVllow and. Tutor of Merlon College. Craven Scholar, 1895. I Empire. E. B. T. EDWARD BURNETT TYLOR, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. f Klinilfth See the biographical article : TYLOR, E. B. \ • E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A.. D.Lrrr. (Dublin). Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," , Ellas, in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D. j ggj .^SPS^**"'' See the biographical article: GOSSK, EDMUND W. j EtCdgel EuphS.' E. Ga. EMILE GARCKE, M.I.vsT.E.E. | Electricity Supply: Managing Director of British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of\ •, Electrical Undertakings; &c. E. Go. SIR ELDON GORST, K.C.B. /Egypt: Finance (in part). Sec the biographical article: GORST, SIR JOHN ELDON. I E. Gr. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. f Eleusis; Ells; Epidaurus; See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. \ Erechtheum; Eretria. E. He. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. f Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical ~i Elgon. Society, London. I Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.Lrrr. (Oxon.), LL.D. , Eucratides; Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des "j Euthvdemus Alterthums; Geschichte des alien Agyptens; Die Israel iten und ihre Nachbarstdmme. I E. S. P. EDWARD STANLEY POOLE. j Egypt: History (II. in part). See the biographical article: POOLE, REGINALD STUART. I E. V. REV. EDMUND VENABLES (1810-1895). f Ember Days and Ember Canon and Preceptor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England. \ Weeks. E. Wo. FIELD-MARSHAL SIR EVELYN WOOD, V.C., G.C.M.G. f „.__. . ,, , See the biographical article: WOOD, SIR EVELYN. \ fcgypt' Modern, Army- F. C. C. FREDERICK CORNWALUS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. (Giessen). f Epiphany; Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 1 Eucharist' Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. I F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. f Edwin; Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. I Essex, Kingdom of. F. J. H. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D. (Aberdeen), F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Member of the J Ermine street. German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Formerly Senior Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906. Author of Monographs on Roman History; &c. F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D. r Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, J w.-.-*. *„ •. , Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeological Reports of the | M**Pl- An Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow ol Imperial German Archaeological Institute. I F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. f Ear.J)i. Mode... ,in ..„.,-) Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ ^yP ( P '" F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL. C.M.G. r Lieutenant-Colonel, R.A. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurdistan), I Erzerum (in part); 1897-1898. Military Attache", British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. 1 Erzlngan (M Part). Author of Central Kurdistan ; &c. I F. W. H. FREDERICK WILLIAM MAITLAND, LL.D. f v>ni,ii.h i «„ See the biographical article : MAITLAND, F. W. \ g F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. f Emerald- Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1870-1002. 1 . President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Emery- G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LiTT.D. r Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatu'es; Life of Richard \ Eneleheart Corway, R.A.; George Engleheort; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of new edition 1 of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engraven. G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R. HIST. S. f Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1 909-.' 9 !«>• Employed by British Government in preparation of the British \ Egmont, Count of. case in the British Guiana-Venezuelan and British Guiana-Brazilian boundary arbitrations. G. G. C. GEORGE GOUDIE CRISROLM, M.A. r Lecturer on Geography in the University of Edinburgh. Secretary of the Royal J Europe: Geography and Scottish Geographical Society. Author of Handbook of Commercial Geography \ Statistics. Fxlitor of Longman's Gazetteer of the World. I viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. J Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. Author of Insects: ~\ Entomology. Their Structure and Life. I G. S. C. SIR GEORGE SYDENHAM CLARKE, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., F.R.S. f Eevnt- Miliiarv Oberat Governor of Bombay. Author of Imperial Defence; Russia's Great Sea Power -A * The Last Great Naval War; &c. 88S- H. A. E. D. HANS A. E. DRIESCH, PH.D., LL.D. f Giffprd Lecturer at the University of Aberdeen, 1907-1908. Author of Die Or- J Embryology : Physiology o; ganischen Regulationen; Der Vitalismus als Geschichte und als Lehre; The Science 1 Development, and Philology of the Organism ; &c. I H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. f Fellow of the British Academy. Joint Editor of the New English Dictionary -\ English Literature (I.). (Oxford). Author of The Story of the Goths ; The Making of English ; &c. L H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition-^ English History: XII. (in part) of the Encyclopaedia Britaanica. Co- Editor of the loth edition. L H. C. R. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART., G.C.B. J Euphrates (in part) See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C. H. F. T. REV. HENRY FANSHAWE TOZER, M.A., F.R.G.S. f Hon. Fellow and formerly Tutor of Exeter College, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Corresponding Member of the Historical Society of Greece Author of -j Euboea. History of Ancient Geography; Classical Geography; Lectures on the Geography of Greece; &c. H. Ha. HEBER HART, LL.D. f „ Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. { Estate and House Agents. H. H. W. REV. HENRY HERBERT WILLIAMS, M.A. Fellow, Tutor and Lecturer in Philosophy, Hertford College, Oxford. Examining -! Ethics (in part). Chaplain to the Bishop of Llandaff. L H. M. R. HUGH MUNRO Ross. f Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Times Engineering J. English Channel (in part). Supplement. Author of British Railways. H. M. R. M. HILDA MARY R. MURRAY, M.A. f _ ,. . T / . Lecturer on English at Royal Holloway College. \ EnSllsh Language (in part). H. N. G. HARRY NORMAN GARDINER, A.M. f" Professor of Philosophy, Smith College, Northampton, U.S.A. Editor of Jonathan •< Edwards, Jonathan (in par?. Edwards — a Retrospect. H. R. M. HUGH ROBERT MILL, D.Sc., LL.D. Director of British Rainfall Organization. Formerly President of the Royal Meteoro- logical Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographical Society. Hon. Correspond- ing Member of Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Budapest, St Petersburg, Amsterdam, &c. British Delegate to International Conference on the Exploration of the Sea at Christiania, 1901. Author of The Realm of Nature; The Clyde Sea Area; The English Lakes; The International Geography. Editor of British Rainfall. England : Physical Geograpny (II., IV.). H. S. HENRY SIDGWICK, LL.D. f Pfhi.,, /• . .A See the biographical article : SIDGWICK, H. \ Etmcs (in tart>- H. Sw. HENRY SWEET, M.A., PH.D., LL.D. University Reader in Phonetics, Oxford. Member of the Academies of Munich, J EsnerantO Berlin, Copenhagen and Helsingfors. Author of A History of English Sounds since | the Earliest Period ; A Handbook of Phonetics ; &c. [_ H. van D. HENRY VAN DYKE, A.M., D.D., LL.D. f Professor of English Literature, Princeton University, U.S.A. Author of The Poetry J Emerson. of Tennyson; The Ruling Passion; The Spirit of America; &c. H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, 4 Eleanor of Aquitaine. 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. I. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. r Einhorn, David ; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President, J Eliiah Wilni • Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera- 1 *..' * ' , lure ; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages ; &c. I Ellsna ben Abuyah. Electrical Machine ; J. A. P. JOHN AMBROSE FLEMING, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Fender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow of University College, London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. - r Vice-President ofthe Institution of Electrical Engineers. Author of The Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy ; Magnets and Electric Currents ; &c. Electricity ; Electricity Supply ; Electrokinetics ; Electromagnetism ; Electrometer ; Electrophorus ; . Electroscope ; Electrostatics. J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. r Enir|ftnii . r,f „}„„,, (TTT \. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of J. * Geology of Building Stones. [ Eocene. J. A. H. M. SIR JAMES AUGUSTUS HENRY MURRAY, LL.D., D.C.L., Lrrr.D. f -,_ ,,„. T See the biographical article : MURRAY, SIR JAMES A. H. \ EnSlisn Language. J. G. C. A. JOHN GEORGE CLARK ANDERSON, M.A. f Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College; •< Euyuk. Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Conington Prizeman, 1893. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J G. M. J. C. R. J. H. F. J. H. Rs. J. HI. R. J. J. T. J. L.* J. L.H. J. M. H. J. M. Ha. J. P. Pe. J. S. F. J. S. M. J. T. B«. J. T. C. J. W. He. K. S. L.D.* L.J.S. L.V.* JOHN GRAY MCKENDRICK, M.I)., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S. (Edin.). Emeritus Profe«or of Physiology at the University of Glasgow. Professor of "> Equilibrium. Physiology, 1876-1906. Author of Life in Motion; Life of lielmholli; &c. JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D. ProfcMor of German Language and Literature, University of London. Editor of the Modern Language Journal. Author of History of German Literature; Schiller after a Century; OK. JOHN HENRY FREESE. M.A. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. ' Eulenspiegel. { Equites. » • I Epheslans, Epistle to the. Enghien, Duo d', Electric Waves. Energetics ; Energy (HI part). Epirus. Erlgena (in part). REV. JAMES HARDY ROPES, D.D. Bussey Professor of New Testament Criticjsm and Interpretation, and IVxtrr Lecturer on Biblical Literature, Harvard University. Author of The Apostolic Age in the Light of Modern Criticism; &c. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lrrr.D. Lecturer on Modern History' to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.Sc., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S. Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, Cambridge. Fellow of Trinity College. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise- on the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. SIR JOSEPH LARMOR, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in Cambridge University. Secretary of the Royal Society. Professor of Natural. Philosophy, Queen's College, Galway, and in the Queen's University of Ireland, 1880-1885. Author of Ether and Matter, and various memoirs on Mathematics and Physics. JOHN LINTON MYRES, M.A., F.S.A. Wykeham Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Formerly Gladstone Professor of Greek and Lecturer in Ancient Geography, University of Liverpool, and Lecturer on Classical Archaeology, University of Oxford. JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London • College (University of London). Joint Editor of Grote's History of Greece. JOHN MATTHEWS MANLY. A.M., PH.D. Professor and Head of the Department of English in the University of Chicago. Managing Editor of Modern Philology. Author of The Language of Chaucer's Legend •< English Literature (II.). of Good Women; &c. Editor of Specimens of the Pre-Shakespearean Drama; English Prose, 1137-1800; English Poetry, 1170-1802; &c. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D. r %Mth • Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in the I 17-1.1.. .' University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Babylonia, 1 1888-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates. I Euphrates (in part). JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. r Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Epidiorite ; burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Epidosite Medallist of the Geological Society of London. JOHN STURGEON MACKAY, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. (Edin.). f Chief Mathematical Master at Edinburgh Academy, 1873-1904. First President of the Edinburgh Mathematical Society. Author of Arithmetical Exercises; Elements of Euclid. JOHN T. BEALBY. Formerly^ Editor of the Scottish Geographical -I Esthonia (in Part). JOSEPH THOMAS CUNNINGHAM, M.A., F.Z.S. r Lecturer on Zoology at the South-Western Polytechnic, London. Formerly Fellow J _ . of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History in the | Eel- University ot Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association. I JAMES WYCUFFE HEADLAM, M.A. r Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge, and Professor of Greek and Ancient History J Ernest II. at Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German I Empire; &c. . . Joint Author of Stanford's Europe. .Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; &c. Archaeology. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Epigonlon ; Euphonium. / Eleutherius ; I Eugenlus I. and Louis DUCHESSE. Sec the biographical article : DUCHESNE, L. M. O. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of Enstatlte ; Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkn«.-8s Scholar. Editor of the Mineral- \ Epidote ; ogical Magazine. [ Erabescite. LUIGI VlLLARI. Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre- I •pondent in East of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1006; Phil- I E»te. adclphia, 1907; and Boston, U.S.A., 1007-1910. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; Ac. [ II. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES M. G. MOSES GASTEK., PH.!?. (Leipzig). /- Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and By- J - , „ „. . ., zantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folklore Society of England. Vice- 1 ^Ullneseu, IHlChaiL President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature; &c. M. H. S. MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. r Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome, and the Franco-British I pm™!fi<. (;„ j.nr,\ Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch "; British Portrait Painting] u'elcs Vn Parl>- to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c. M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D. (Leipzig). Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Author oH Ereshkiga!. Religion of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. L M. 0. B. C. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. j~ Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birming- \ Epaminondas. ham University, 1905-1908. [ M. N. T. MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. f" Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. -\ Ephor. Joint Author of Catalogue of the. Sparta Museum. M. P. MARK PATTISON. f pr~,,mll, / • A/I A See the biographical article: PATTISON, MARK. N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. [ Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's -j Ephraem Syrus. College, Cambridge. Joint Editor of the larger Cambridge Septuagint. O. E.* OLIVER ELTON, M.A. f Professor of English Literature at the University of Liverpool. Author ol Modern \ English Literature (III., IV.). Studies; The Augustan Ages; Michael Drayton; &c. ( England: Topography, Popti- O. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHN RADCLIFFE HOWARTH M A lalim and Industries (I Christ Church, Oxford. Geographical Scholar, 1901. Assistant Secretary of the •< VT VTTT TY •> British Association. VL> VIII-> lX->'> [ English Channel (in part). P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVTTCH KROPOTKIN. / v.tVtnr,,a , • ,\ See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. \" P. La. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly I p.,,.-.. /-„ 7 „ of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 r a Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, Trinity College, Dublin. Author 1 Esther: Additions to. of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life ; Book of Jubilees ; &c. R. H. V. COLONEL ROBERT HAMILTON VETCH, R.E., C.B. Employed on defences of Bermuda, Bristol Channel, Plymouth Harbour and Malta, 1861-1876. Secretary of R.E. Institute, Chatham, 1877-1883. Commanded R.E. Submarine Mining Batt., 1884. Deputy Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1889-- 1894. Author of Gordon's Campaign in China; Life of Lieutenant-General Sir Gerald Graham. Editor of the Professional Papers of the Corps of R.E. ; also the R.E. Journal, 1877-1884. R. J. M. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. f Emmet, Robert; Christ Church, Gazette, London. Egypt: Military Operations, 1885-1900. , .. , . Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's -j Emmet, Thomas Addis. R. L.* RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.G.S. r Eland; Elephant; Formerly Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India. Author of J jjjjj. Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum ; The Deer of 1 all Lands ;&c. [ Equidae. R. N. RICHARD NORTON. f Formerly Director of the American School of Classical Studies in Rome, and Pro- -I Etruria (in part). fessor of History of Art and Archaeology, Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania. R. N. B. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). f Elizabeth Petrovna; Assistant Librarian, British Museum. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History J vf.t,,f.c Rnrnn- FYip YIV • of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, 1613 to 1723; \ „' ,"' £ Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1706; &c. I Esterhazy Of Galantha. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi R. S. C. R. S. P. R. W.' R.We. S. A. C. StC. S S. L.-P. R. G. 1 S. W. T. A. L T. Ba. T. F. C. T. C. Br. T. K. T. K. C. T. L.H. T. R. R. S. T.Se. W. A. B. C. W. A. P. W. B*. W. C. D. W. W. C. T. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lm. (Cantab.). Profenor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the Umvemty of Manchesti -r. Formeriy ProfeMor of Latin, University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville, and Caius College, Cambridge. REGINALD STUART POOLE. See the biographical article: POOLB, REGINALD STUART. RICHARD WILLIAMS. RICHARD WEBSTER, A.M. Korim-rly Fi-llow in Classks, Pnnceton University. Uaximianus ; Ac. Etrurla: Language. • Egypt: History, I. (in part). Eisteddfod. Editor of The Elegies of\ Edwards, Jonathan (in part). STANLEY ARTHUR Coor. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Sriac, and Syria Hebr . formerly Fellow, tonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Council of Royal Asiatic Society, 1904- 1905. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Cade of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palatine; Ac. ST GEORGE STOCK, M.A. Pembroke College, Oxford. Lecturer in Greek in the University of Birmingham. STANLEY LANE-POOLE, M.A., Lrrr.D. Formerly Professor of Arabic, Dublin University, and Examiner in the University of Wale*. Corresponding Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society. Member of the Khedivial Commission for the Preservation of the Monuments of Arab Art, Ac. Author of Life of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe; Life of Sir Harry Parka: Cairo; Turkey; Ac. Edited The Koran; The Thousand and One Nights; Ac. SAMUEL RAWSON GARDINER, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: GARDINER, S. R. SIR SPENCER WALPOLE, K.C.B. See the biographical article : WALPOLE, SIR SPENCER. . THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P. Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; Ac. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910. Ell (in part); Elijah (in part); Ellsha (in part); Ephod; Esau. Essenes (in part). Egypt: History, II. (in part). EnellshHistorvrvm TV v\ tory(VIII., IX.,X.). { English History: XII (in tart) / England: Local Government, I x- («• P*V. DR THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U.S.A. THOMAS GREGOR BRODIE, M.D., F.R.S. Professor of Physiology in the University of Toronto. Experimental Physiology. Author of Essentials f Elvira, Synod of; \ Ephesus, Council of. '. Epithelial, Endothelial, Glan- °f\ duter Tissues. THOMAS KIRKUP, M.A., LL.D. Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; Ac. REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, LL.D., D.D., D.Lrrr. See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K. SIR THOMAS LITTLE HEATH, K.C.B., M.A., D.Sc. (Cantab.). Assistant Secretary to the Treasury. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- - Erathosthenes of Alexandria, bridge. Author of Treatise on Conic Sections; Ac. REV. THOMAS ROSCOE REDE STEBBING, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S. f Fellow of King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, and formerly Tutor, of Worcester . College, Oxford.' Zoological Secretary- of Linnaean Society, 1903-1907. Author of A History of Crustacea ; The Naturalist of Cumbrae ; Ac. THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of Tlie Age of Johnson; Ac. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOUDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. (Bern). Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampetcr, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haut Dauphine; The {Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; Ac. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889; &c- WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; Ac. WILLIAM BACHER, PH.D. Professor of Biblical Science at the Rabbinical Seminary', Budapest. Author of Die exegetische Terminologie der judischen Trad itionslitteratur ; Ac. WILLIAM CECIL DAMPIER WHETHAM, M.A., F.R.S. Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Theory of Solution; \ Electrolysis. Recent Development of Physical Science; The Family and the Nation ; Ac. [ W. CAVE THOMAS. ( Author of Symmetrical Education; Mural or Monumental Decoration; Revised \ Encaustic Painting. Theory of Light. Essenes (in part). Esther. Entomostraca ! English Literature (V., VI.! f Elnsledeln; J Embrun: I Engadine; ^ Engelberg. (-English History (XL); 1 Episcopacy; Esquire; I Europe: History (in part). Ellas Levita. Xll W. E. Co. W. G. W. G. M. W. Hu. W. M. F. P. W. 0. W. P. A. W. P. P. W. R. S. W. W. W. Wr. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Rx. REV. WILLIAM EDWARD COLLINS, M[,A., D.D. f _ Bishop of Gibraltar. Formerly Professor of Ecclesiastical History, King's College, 1 Establishment; London. Lecturer of Selwyn and St John's Colleges, Cambridge. Author of Tlie 1 Eucharist: Reservation. Study of Ecclesiastical History; Beginnings of English Christianity; &c. WILLIAM GARNETT, M.A., D.C.L. r Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer J . of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Durham 1 Energy (in part). College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; &c. (_ WALTER G. M'MILLAN, F.C.S., M.I.MECH.E. (d. 1904). f Vi,ptTnp*.*i Formerly Secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers, and Lecturer on J. *"" Metallurgy, Mason College, Birmingham. Author of A Treatise on Electrometallurgy. { Electrometallurgy. REV. WILLIAM HUNT, M.A., LITT.D. President of Royal Historical Society, 1905-1909. Author of History of the English Church, 597-1066; The Church of England in the Middle Ages; &c. WILLIAM MATTHEW FLINDERS PETRIE, F.R.S., D.C.L., LITT.D. See the biographical article: PETRIE, W. M. F. WlLHELM OSTWALD, D.SC., LL.D. Formerly Professor of Chemistry at the University of Leipzig. Nobel Prizeman in Chemistry, 1909. Author of Energetische Grundlagen der Kulturwissenschaft; Die' Energie; Prinzipien der Chemie; &c. LiEUT.-CoLONEL WILLIAM PATRICK ANDERSON, M.lNST.C.E., F.R.G.S. Chief Engineer, Department of Marine and Fisheries of Canada. Member of the Geographic Board of Canada. Past President of Canadian Society of Civil Engineers. WILLIAM PLANE PYCRAFT, F.Z.S. Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum. Formerly Assistant Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford. Vice-President of the ' Selborne Society. Author of A History of Birds; &c. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R. WILLIAM WALLACE. See the biographical article : WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897). WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D. Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congre- gational Churches in the United States; The Reformation; John Calvin; &c. England, Church of. - Egypt: Art and Archaeology. Element. Erie, Lake. Eli (in part); Elijah (in part); Elisha (in part). • Empedocles (in part); Epictetus (in part) ; . Epicurus (in part). Eliot, John. PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Egoism. Elbe. Election. Electoral Commission. Electroplating. Electrotherapeutics. Elevators. Elginshire. Elis. Ellipse. Elm. Ely. Elzevir. Embalming. Embezzlement. Employers' Liability and Workmen's Compensa- tion. Encyclopaedia. Endospora. Engineers: Military. Engraving. Engrossing. Epigram. Epilepsy. Epitaph. Equity. Ericaceae. Eritrea. Erysipelas. Escorial. Eskimo. Essex. Estate. Etching. Ethnology and Ethnography. Etna. Eton. Eucalyptus. Euchre. Euler. Euphorbiaceae. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME IX EDWARDES. SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN (1819-1868), English soldier-statesman in India, was born at Frodesley in Shropshire on the nth of November 1819. His father was Benjamin Edwardcs, rector of Frodesley, and his grandfather Sir John Edwardes, baronet, eighth holder of a title conferred on one of his ancestors by Charles I. in 1644. He was educated at a private school and at King's College, London. Through the influence of his uncle, Sir Henry Edwardes, he was nominated in 1840 to a cadetship in the East India Company; and on his arrival in India, at the beginning of 1841, he was posted as ensign in the ist Bengal Fusiliers. He remained with this regiment about five years, during which time he mastered the lessons of his profession, obtained a good knowledge of Hindustani, Hindi and Persian, and attracted attention by the political and literary ability displayed in a series of letters which appeared in the Delhi Gazette. In November 1845, on the breaking out of the first Sikh War, Edwardes was appointed aide-de-camp to Sir Hugh (afterwards Viscount) Gough, then commander-in-chief in India. On the iSth of December he was severely wounded at the battle of Mudki. He soon recovered, however, and fought by the side of his chief at the decisive battle of Sobraon (February 10, 1846). He was soon afterwards appointed third assistant to the com- missioners of the trans-Sutlej territory; and in January 1847 was named first assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence, the resident at Lahore. Lawrence became his great exemplar and in later yean be was accustomed to attribute to the influence of this " father of his public life " whatever of great or good he had himself achieved. He took part with Lawrence in the suppression of a religious disturbance at Lahore in the spring of 1846, and soon afterwards assisted him in reducing, by a rapid movement to Jammu, the conspirator Imam-ud-din. In the following year a more difficult task was assigned him — the conduct of an expedition to Bannu, a district on the Waziri frontier, in which the people would not tolerate the presence of a collector, and the revenue had consequently fallen into arrcar. By his rare tact and fertility of resource, Edwardes succeeded in completely conquering the wild tribes of the valley without firing a shot, a victory which he afterwards looked back upon with more satis- faction than upon others which brought him more renown. His fiscal arrangements were such as to obviate all difficulty of DC. I collection for the future. In the spring of 1848, in consequence of the murder of Mr vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson at Multan, by order of the diwan Mulraj, and of the raising of the standard of revolt by the latter, Lieutenant Edwardes was authorized to march against him. He set out immediately with a small force, occupied Leiah on the left bank of the Indus, was joined by Colonel van Cortlandt, and, although he could not attack Multan, held the enemy at bay and gave a check at the critical moment to their projects. He won a great victory over a greatly superior Sikh force at Kinyeri (June i8),and received in acknowledgment of his services the local rank of major. In the course of the operations which followed near Multan, Edwardcs lost his right hand by the explosion of a pistol in his belt. On the arrival of a large force under General Whish the siege of Multan was begun, but was suspended for several months in consequence of the desertion of Shere Singh with his army and artillery. Edwardes distinguished himself by the part he took in the final operations, begun in December, which ended with the capture of the city on the 4th of January 1849. For his services he received the thanks of both houses of parliament, was promoted major by brevet, and created C.B. by special statute of the order. The directors of the East India Company conferred on him a gold medal and a good service pension of £ i oo per annum. After the conclusion of peace Major Edwardes returned to England for the benefit of his health, married during his stay there, and wrote and published his fascinating account of the scenes in which he had been engaged, under the title of A Year on the Punjab Frontier in 1848-1849. His countrymen gave him fitting welcome, and the university of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1851 he returned to India and resumed his civil duties in the Punjab under Sir Henry Lawrence. In November 1853 he was entrusted with the responsible post of commissioner of the Peshawar frontier, and this he held when the Mutiny of 1857 broke out. It was a position of enormous difficulty, and momentous consequences were involved in the way the crisis might be met. Edwardes rose to the height of the occasion. He saw as if by inspiration the facts and the needs, and by the prompt measures which he adopted he rendered a service of incalculable importance, by effecting a reconciliation with Afghanistan, and securing the neutrality of the amir and EDWARDS, AMELIA— EDWARDS, HENRY the frontier tribes during the war. So effective was his procedure for the safety of the border that he was able to raise a large force in the Punjab and send it to co-operate in the siege and capture of Delhi. In 1859 Edwardes once more went to England, his health so greatly impaired by the continual strain of arduous work that it was doubtful whether he could ever return to India. During his stay he was created K.C.B., with the rank of brevet colonel; and the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by the university of Cambridge. Early in 1862 he again sailed for India, and was appointed commissioner of Umballa and agent for the Cis-Sutlej states. He had been offered the governor- ship of the Punjab, but on the ground of failing health had declined it. In February 1865 he was compelled to finally resign his post and return to England. A second good service pension was at once conferred on him; in May 1866 he was created K.C. of the Star of India; and early in 1868 was promoted major-general in the East Indian Army. He had been for some time engaged on a life of Sir Henry Lawrence, and high expecta- tions were formed of the work; but he did not live to complete it, and after his death it was put into the hands of Mr Herman Merivale. He died in London on the 23rd of December 1868. Great in council and great in war, he was singularly beloved by his friends, generous and unselfish to a high degree, and a man of deep religious convictions. See Memorials of the Life and Letters of Sir Herbert Benjamin Edwardes, by his wife (2 vols., London, 1886) ; T. R. E. Holmes, Four Soldiers (London, 1889); J. Ruskin, Bibl. pastorum, iv. "A Knight's Faith " (1885), passages from the life of Edwardes. EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD (1831-1892), English author and Egyptologist, the daughter of one of Wellington's officers, was born in London on the 7th of June 1831. At a very early age she displayed considerable literary and artistic talent. She became a contributor to various magazines and newspapers, and besides many miscellaneous works she wrote eight novels, the most successful of which were Debenham's Vow (1870) and Lord Brackenbury (1880). In the winter of 1873-1874 she visited Egypt, and was profoundly impressed by the new openings for archaeological research. She learnt the hieroglyphic characters, and made a considerable collection of Egyptian antiquities. In 1877 she published A Thousand Miles up the Nile, with illustra- tions by herself. Convinced that only by proper scientific investigations could the wholesale destruction of Egyptian antiquities be avoided, she devoted herself to arousing public opinion on the subject, and ultimately, in 1882, was largely instrumental in founding the Egypt Exploration Fund, of which she became joint honorary secretary with Reginald Stuart Poole. For the business of this Fund she abandoned her other literary work, writing only on Egyptology. In 1889-1890 she went on a lecturing tour in the United States. The substance of her lectures was published in volume form in 1891 as Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers. She died at Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, on the isth of April 1892, bequeathing her valuable collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College, London, together with a sum to found a chair of Egyptology. Miss Edwards received, shortly before her death, a civil list pension from the British government. EDWARDS, BELA BATES (1802-1852), American man of letters, was born at Southampton, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July 1802. He graduated at Amherst College in 1824, was a tutor there in 1827-1828, graduated at Andover Theological Seminary in 1830, and was licensed to preach. From 1828 to 1833 he was assistant secretary of the American Education Society (organized in Boston in 1815 to assist students for the ministry), and from 1828 to 1842 was editor of the society's organ, which after 1831 was called the American Quarterly Register. He also founded (in 1833) and edited the American Quarterly Observer; in 1836-1841 edited the Biblical Repository (after 1837 called the American Biblical Repository) with which the Observer was merged in 1835; and was editor-in-chief of the Bibliotheca Sacra from 1844 to 1851. In 1837 he became pro- fessor of Hebrew at Andover, and from 1848 until his death was associate professor of sacred literature there. He died at Athens, Georgia, on the zoth of April 1852. Among his numerous publications were A Missionary Gazetteer (1832), A Biography of Self-Taught Men (1832), a once widely known Eclectic Reader (1835), a translation, with Samuel Harvey Taylor (1807-1871), of Kiihner's Schulgrammatik der Griechischen Sprache and Classical Studies (1844), essays in ancient literature and art written in collaboration with Barnas Sears and C. C. Felton. Edwards' Addresses and Sermons, with a memoir by Rev. Edwards A. Park, were published in two volumes at Boston in 1853. EDWARDS, BRYAN (1743-1800), English politician and historian, was born at Westbury, Wiltshire, on the 2ist of May 1743. His father died in 1756, when his maintenance and educa- tion were undertaken by his maternal uncle, Zachary Bayly, a wealthy merchant of Jamaica. About 1759 Bryan went to Jamaica, and joined his uncle, who engaged a private tutor to complete his education, and when Bayly died his nephew inherited his wealth, succeeding also in 1773 to the estate of another Jamaica resident named Hume. Edwards soon became a leading member of the colonial assembly of Jamaica, but in a few years he returned to England, and in 1782 failed to secure a seat in parliament as member for Chichester. He was again in Jamaica from 1787 to 1792, when he settled in England as a West India merchant, making in 1795 another futile attempt to enter parliament, on this occasion as the representative of South- ampton. In 1796, however, he became member of parliament for Grampound, retaining his seat until his death at Southampton on the 1 5th or i6th of July 1800. In general Edwards was a supporter of the slave trade, and was described by William Wilber- force as a powerful opponent. By his wife, Martha, daughter of Thomas Phipps of Westbury, he left an only son, Hume. In 1784 Edwards wrote Thoughts on the late Proceedings of Government respecting the Trade of the West India Islands with the United States of America, in which he attacked the restrictions placed by the government upon trade with the United States. In 1793 he published in two volumes his great work, History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies, and in 1797 published his Historical Survey of the French Colony in the Island of St Domingo. In 1801 a new edition of both these works with certain additions was published in three volumes under the title of History of the British Colonies in the West Indies. This has been translated into German and parts of it into French and Spanish, and a fifth edition was issued in 1819. When Mungo Park returned in 1796 from his celebrated journey in Africa, Edwards, who was secretary of the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, drew up from Park's narrative an account of his travels, which was published by the association in their Proceedings; and when Park wrote an account of his journeys he availed himself of Edwards' assistance. Edwards also wrote some poems and some other works relating to the history of the West Indies. He left a short sketch of his life which was prefixed to the edition of the History of the West Indies, published in 1801. EDWARDS, GEORGE (1693-1773), English naturalist, was born at Stratford, Essex, on the 3rd of April 1693. In his early years he travelled extensively over Europe, studying natural history, and gained some reputation for his coloured drawings of animals, especially birds. In 1733, on the recommendation of Sir Hans Sloane, he was appointed librarian to the Royal College of Physicians in London. In 1743 he published the first volume of his History of Birds, the fourth volume of which appeared in 1751, and three supplementary volumes, under the title Glean- ings of Natural History, were issued in. 1 7 58, 1 760 and 1 764. The two works contain engravings and descriptions of more than 600 subjects in natural history not before described or delineated. He likewise added a general index in French and English, which was afterwards supplied with Linnaean names by Linnaeus himself, with whom he frequently corresponded. About 1764 he retired to Plaistow, Essex, where he died on the 23rd of July 1773. He also wrote Essays of Natural History (1770) and Elements of Fossilogy (1776). EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS (1837-1884), Welsh divine, was born on the 6th of September 1837 at Llan ym Mawddwy, EDWARDS, JONATHAN Merioneth, where his father was vicar. He was educated at :nmster and at Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1860), and after teaching for two years at Llandovery went to Llangollen as his father's curate. He became vicar of Aberdare in 1866 and of Carnarvon in 1860. Here he began his lifelong controversy with onformity, especially as represented by the Rev. Evan Jones (Calvinistio Methodist) and Rev. E. Herber Evans (Congrega- tionalist). In 1870 he fought in vain for the principle of all- round denominationalism in the national education system, and in the same year addressed a famous letter to Mr Gladstone on " The Church of the Cymry," pointing out that the success of Nonconformity in Wales was largely due to " the withering effect of an alien episcopate." One immediate result of this was the appointment of the Welshman Joshua Hughes (1807-1889) to the vacant see of St Asaph. Edwards became dean of Bangor in 1876 and at once set about restoring the cathedral, and he promoted a clerical education society for supplying the diocese with educated Welsh-speaking clergy. He was a popular preacher and an earnest patriot ; his chief defect was a lack of appreciation of the theological attainments of Nonconformity, and a Welsh commentary on St Matthew, which he had worked at for many yean and published in two volumes in 1882, was severely handled by a Bangor Calvinistic Methodist minister. Edwards suffered from overwork and insomnia and a Mediterranean cruise in 1883 failed to restore his health ; and he died by his own hand on the 24th of May 1884 at Ruabon. See V. Morgan. Welsh Religious Leaders in the Victorian Era. EDWARDS. JONATHAN (1703-1738), American theologian and philosopher, was born on the 5th of October 1703 at East (now South) Windsor, Connecticut. His earliest known ancestor was Richard Edwards, Welsh by birth, a London clergyman in Elizabeth's reign. His father Timothy Edwards (1660-1758), son of a prosperous merchant of Hartford, had graduated at Harvard, was minister at East Windsor, and eked out his salary by tutoring boys for college. His mother, a daughter of the Rev. Solomon Stoddard, of Northampton, Mass., seems to have been a woman of unusual mental gifts and independence of character. Jonathan, the only son, was the fifth of eleven children. The boy was trained for college by his father and by his elder sisters, who all received an excellent education. When ten years old he wrote a semi-humorous tract on the immateriality of the soul; he was interested in natural history, and at the age of twelve wrote a remarkable essay on the habits of the " flying spider." He entered Yale College in 1716, and in the following year became acquainted with Locke's Essay, which influenced him profoundly. During his college course he kept note books labelled " The Mind," ural Science " (containing a discussion of the atomic theory, &c.), " The Scriptures " and " Miscellanies," had a grand plan for a work on natural and mental philosophy, and drew up for himself rules for its composition. Even before his graduation in September 1720 as valedictorian and head of his class, he seems to have had a well formulated philosophy. The two years after his graduation he spent in New Haven studying theology. In 1722-1723 be was for eight months stated supply of a small Presbyterian church in New York city, which invited him to remain, but he declined the call, spent two months in study at home, and then in 1724-1726 was one of the two tutors at Yale, earning for himself the name of a " pillar tutor " by his steadfast loyalty to the college and its orthodox teaching at the time when Yale's rector (Cutler) and one of her tutors had gone over to the Episcopal Church. The years 1720 to 1726 are partially recorded in his diary and in the resolutions for his own conduct which he drew up at this time. He had long been an eager seeker after salvation and was not fully satisfied as to his own " conversion " until an experience in his last year in college, when he lost his feeling that the ejection of some to salvation and of others to eternal damnation wms " a horrible doctrine," and reckoned it " exceedingly pleasant, bright and sweet. " He now took a great and new joy in the beauties of nature, and delighted in the allegorical in- terpretation of the Song of Solomon. Balancing these mystic joys is the stem tone of his Resolutions, in which he is almost ascetic in his eagerness to live earnestly and soberly, to waste no time, to maintain the strictest temperance in eating and drinking. On the isth of February 1727 he was ordained minister at Northampton and assistant to his grandfather, Solomon Stoddard. He was a student minister, not a visiting pastor, his rule being thirteen hours of study a day. In the same year he married Sarah Pierrepont, then aged seventeen, daughter of James Pierrepont (1659-1714), a founder of Yale, and through her mother great-granddaughter of Thomas Hooker. Of her piety and almost nun-like love of God and belief in His personal love for her, Edwards had known when she was only thirteen, and had written of it with spiritual enthusiasm; she was of a bright and cheerful disposition, a practical housekeeper, a model wife and the mother of his twelve children. Solomon Stoddard died on the nth of February 1729, leaving to his grandson the difficult task of the sole ministerial charge of one of the largest and wealthiest congregations in the colony, and one proud of its morality, its culture and its reputation. In 1731 Edwards preached at Boston the " Public Lecture " afterwards published under the title Cod Glorified in Man's Dependence. This was his first public attack on Arminianism. The leading thought was God's absolute sovereignty in the work of redemption: that while it behoved God to create man holy, it was of His " good pleasure " and " mere and arbitrary grace " that any man was now made holy, and that God might deny this grace without any disparagement to any of His perfections. In 1733 a revival of religion began in Northampton, and reached such intensity in the winter of 1734 and the following spring as to threaten the business of the town. In six months nearly three hundred were admitted to the church. The revival gave Edwards an opportunity of studying the process of conversion in all its phases and varieties, and he recorded his observations with psychological minuteness and discrimination in A Faithful Narrative of (he Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton (1737). A year later he published Discourses on Various Im- portant Subjects, the five sermons which had proved most effective in the revival, and of these none, he tells us, was so immediately effective as that on the Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners, from the text, " That every mouth may be stopped." Another sermon, published in 1734, on the Reality of Spiritual Light set forth what he regarded as the inner, moving principle of the revival, the doctrine of a " special " grace in the immediate and supernatural divine illumination of the soul. In the spring of 1735 the movement began to subside and a reaction set in. But the relapse was brief, and the Northampton revival, which had spread through the Connecticut valley and whose fame had reached England and Scotland, was followed in 1739-1740 by the Great Awakening, distinctively under the leadership of Edwards. The movement met with no sympathy from the orthodox leaders of the church. In 1741 Edwards published in its defence The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God, dealing particularly with the phenomena most criticized, the swoonings, outcries and convulsions. These " bodily effects," he insisted, were not " distinguishing marks "of the work of the Spirit of God; but so bitter was the feeling against the revival in the more strictly Puritan churches that in 1742 he was forced to write a second apology, Thoughts on the Revival in New England, his main argument being the great moral improvement of the country. In the same pamphlet he defends an appeal to the emotions, and advocates preaching terror when necessary, even to children, who in God's sight " are young vipers ... if not Christ's." He considers " bodily effects " incidentals to the real work of God, but his own mystic devotion and the experiences of his wife during the Awakening (which he gives in detail) make him think that the divine visitation usually overpowers the body, a view in support of which he quotes Scripture. In reply to Edwards, Charles Chauncy anonymously wrote The Late Religious Com- motions in New England Considered (1743), urging conduct as the sole test of conversion; and the general convention of Congrega- tional ministers in the Province of Massachusetts Bay protested " against disorders in practice which have of late obtained in EDWARDS, JONATHAN various parts of the land." In spite of Edwards's able pamphlet, the impression had become widespread that " bodily effects " were recognized by the promoters of the Great Awakening as the true tests of conversion. To offset this feeling Edwards * preached at Northampton during the years 1742 and 1743 a series of sermons published under the title of Religious Affections (i 746), a restatement in a more philosophical and general tone of his ideas as to " distinguishing marks." In 1747 he joined the movement started in Scotland called the " concert in prayer," and in the same year published An Humble Attempt to Promote Explicit Agreement and Visible Union of God's People in Extraordinary Prayer for the Revival of Religion and the Advancement of Christ's Kingdom on Earth. In 1749 he published a memoir of David Brainerd; the latter had lived in his family for several months, had been constantly attended by Edwards's daughter Jerusha, to whom he had been engaged to be married, and had died at Northampton on the 7th of October 1747; and he had been a case in point for the theories of conversion held by Edwards, who had made elaborate notes of Brainerd's conversations and confessions. In 1 748 there hadcome a crisis in his relations with his congrega- tion. The Half -Way Covenant adopted by the synods of 1657 and 1662 had made baptism alone the condition to the civil privileges of church membership, but not of participation in the sacrament of the Supper. Edwards's grandfather and predecessor, Solomon Stoddard, had been even more liberal, holding that the Supper was a converting ordinance and that baptism was a sufficient title to all the privileges of the church. As early as 1 744 Edwards, in his sermons on the Religious Affections, had plainly intimated his dislike of this practice. In the same year he had published in a church meeting the names of certain young people, members of the church, who were suspected of reading improper books,2 and also the names of those who were to be called as witnesses in the case. But witnesses and accused were not distinguished on this list, and the congregation was in an uproar. A great many, fearing a scandal, now opposed an investigation which all had previously favoured. Edwards's preaching became unpopular ; for four years no candidate presented himself for admission to the church ; and when one did in 1748, and was met with Edwards's formal but mild and gentle tests, as expressed in the Distinguishing Marks and later in Qualifications for Full Communion (1749) the candidate refused to submit to them; the church backed him and the break was complete. Even permission to discuss his views in the pulpit was refused him. The ecclesiastical council voted by 10 to 9 that the pastoral relation be dissolved. The church by a vote of more than 200 to 23 ratified the action of the council, and finally a town meeting voted that Edwards should not be allowed to occupy the Northampton pulpit, though he did this on occasion as late as May 1755. He evinced no rancour or spite; his " Farewell Sermon " was dignified and temperate; nor is it to be ascribed to chagrin that in a letter to Scotland after his dismissal he expresses his preference for Presbyterian to Con- gregational church government. His position at the time was not unpopular throughout New England, and it is needless to say that his doctrine that the Lord's Supper is not a cause of regeneration and that communicants should be professing Christians has since (very largely through the efforts of his pupil Joseph Bellamy) become a standard of New England Congre- gationalism. Edwards with his large family was now thrown upon the world, but offers of aid quickly came to him. A parish in Scotland could have been procured, and he was called to a Virginia church. He declined both, to become in 1750 pastor of the church in Stockbridge and a missionary to the Housatonic Indians. To the Indians he preached through an interpreter, and their interests he boldly and successfully defended by attacking the whites 1 Edwards recognized the abuse of impulses and impressions, opposed itinerant and lay preachers, and defended a well-ordered and well-educated clergy. * These were probably not fiction like Pamela, as Sir Leslie Stephen suggested, for Edwards listed several of Richardson's novels for his own reading, and considered Sir Charles Grandison a very moral and excellent work. who were using their official position among them to increase their private fortunes. In Stockbridge he wrote the Humble Relation, also called Reply to Williams (1752), which was an answer to Solomon Williams (1700-1776), a relative and a bitter opponent of Edwards as to the qualifications for full communion ; and he there composed the treatises on which his reputation as a philosophical theologian chiefly rests, the essay on Original Sin, the Dissertation concerning the Nature of True Virtue, the Dissertation concerning the End for which God created the World, and the great work on the Will, written in four months and a half, and published in 1754 under the title, An Inquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions Respecting that Freedom of the Will which is supposed to be Essential to Moral Agency. In 1757, on the death of President Burr, who five years before had married Edwards's daughter Esther, he reluctantly accepted the presidency of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), where he was installed on the i6th of February 1758. Almost immediately afterwards he was inoculated for smallpox, which was raging in Princeton and vicinity, and, always feeble, he died of the inoculation on the 28th of March 1758. He was buried in the old cemetery at Princeton. He was slender and fully six feet tall, and with his oval, gentle, almost feminine face looked the scholar and the mystic. The Edwardean System. — It is difficult to separate Edwards's philosophy from his theology, except as the former is contained in the early notes on the Mind, where he says that matter exists only in idea; that space is God ; that minds only are real ; that in meta- physical strictness there is no being but God; that entity is the greatest and only good; and that God as infinite entity, wherein the agreement of being with being is absolute, is the supreme ex- cellency, the supreme good. It seems certain that these conclusions were independent of Berkeley and Malebranche, and were not drawn from Arthur Collier's Clams universalis (1713), with which they have much in common, but were suggested, in part at least, by Locke's doctrine of ideas, Newton's theory of colours, and Cudworth's Platonism, with all of which Edwards was early familiar. But they were never developed systematically, and the conception of the material universe here contended for does not again explicitly re- appear in any of his writings. The fundamental metaphysical postulate that being and God are ultimately identical remained, however, the philosophical basis of all his thinking, and reverence for this being as the supreme good remained the fundamental dis- position of his mind. That he did not interpret this idea in a Spino- zistic sense was due to his more spiritual conception of " being " and to the reaction on his philosophy of his theology. The theo- logical interest, indeed, came in the end to predominate, and philosophy to appear as an instrument for the defence of Calvinism. Perhaps the best criticism of Edwards's philosophy as a whole is that, instead of being elaborated on purely rational principles, it is mixed up with a system of theological conceptions with which it is never thoroughly combined, and that it is exposed to all the disturbing effects of theological controversy. Moreover, of one of his most central convictions, that of the sovereignty of God in election, he confesses that he could give no account. Edwards's reputation as a thinker is chiefly associated with his treatise on the Will, which is still sometimes called " the one large contribution that America has made to the deeper philosophic thought of the world." The aim of this treatise was to refute the doctrine of free-will, since he considered it the logical, as distinguished from the sentimental, ground of most of the Arminian objections to Calvinism. He defines the will as that by which the " mind chooses anything." To act voluntarily, he says, is to act electively. So far he and his opponents are agreed. But choice, he holds, is not arbitrary; it is determined in every case by " that motive which as it stands in the view of the mind is the strongest," and that motive is strongest which presents in the immediate object of volition the " greatest apparent good," that is, the greatest degree of agreeable- ness or pleasure. What this is in a given case depends on a multitude of circumstances, external and internal, all contributing to form the " cause " of which the voluntary act and its consequences are the " effect." Edwards contends that the connexion between cause and effect here is as "sure and perfect" as in the realm of physical nature and constitutes a " moral necessity." He reduces the in equilibrio "; (3) " contingehce ... as opposed to . . . any fixed and certain connexipn (of the volition) with some previous ground or reason for its existence." Although he denies liberty to the will in this sense — indeed, strictly speaking, neither liberty nor necessity, he says, is properly applied to the will, " for the will itself is not an agent that has a will " — he nevertheless insists that the subject willing is a free moral agent, and argues that without the EDWARDS, JONATHAN determinate connexion between volition and motive which he asserts and the libertarians ileiu , moral agency would be impotutible. Liberty, he hold*, i» simply freedom Trom constraint, " the power that any one has to do as he pleases." This power man pos- atme*. And that the right or wrung of choice depends not on the cans* of choke but on its nature, he illustrates by the example of Christ, whose acts were necessarily holy, MI truly virtuous, praise- worthy and rewardable. Kven (KKJ Himself, Edwards here main- tains, has no other liberty than this, to carry out without constraint • wisdom and inclination. There is n» in i umiij connexion between Kdwanls's doctrine of the motivation of t lu>uv and t hi- system of Calvinism with which it is congruent. Similar doctrines have more frequently perhaps been associated with theological scepticism. But for him the altiTii.it IM- was between Calvinism and Arminianism, simply because of the historical situation, and in the refutation of Arminianism on the assumptions common to both sides of the controversy, he must be considered completely successful. As a general argument hi-. account of the determination of the will is defective, notably in his abstract conception of the will and in his inadequate, but suggestive, treatment of causation, in regard to which he anticipates in important respects the doctrine of Hume. Instead of making the motive to choke a factor within the concrete process of volition, he regards it as a cause antecedent to the exercise of a special mental faculty. Yet his conception of this faculty as functioning only in and through motive and character, inclination and desire, certainly carries us a long way beyond the abstraction in which his opponents stuck, that of a bare faculty without any assignable content. Modern psycho- logy has strengthened the contention for a Axed connexion between motive and act by reference to subconscious and unconscious pro- cesses of which Edwards, who thought that nothing could affect the raind which was unperceived, little dreamed; at the same time. at least in some of its developments, especially in its freer use ot genetic and organic conceptions, it has rendered much in the older forms of statement obsolete, and has given a new meaning to the idea of self-determination, which, as applied to an abstract power, Edwards rightly rejected as absurd. Edwards s controversy with the Arminians was continued in the easay on Original Sin, which was in the press at the time of his death. He here breaks with Augustine and the Westminster Con- fession by arguing, consistently with his theory of the Will, that Adam had no more freedom of will than we have, but had a special endowment, a supernatural gift of grace, which by rebellion against God was lost, ana that this gift was withdrawn from his descendants, not because of any fictitious imputation of guilt, but because of their real participation in his guilt by actual identity with him in his transgression. The Dissertation on the Nature of True Virtue, posthumously published, is justly regarded as one of the most original works on i thics of the 1 8th century, and is the more remarkable as reproducing, ttith no essential modification, ideas on the subject written in the author's youth in the notes on the Mind. Virtue is conceived as the beauty of moral qualities. Now beauty, in Edwards's view, always consists in a harmonious relation in the elements involved, an agree- ment of being with being. He conceives, therefore, of virtue, or moral beauty, as consisting in the cordial agreement or consent to intelligent being. He defines it as benevolence (good-will), or rather as a disposition to benevolence, towards being in general. This disposition, he argues, has no regard primarily to beauty in the object, nor is it primarily based on gratitude. Its first object is being, " simply considered," and it is accordingly proportioned, other things being equal, to the object's " degree of existence." He admits, however, benevolent being as a second object, on the ground that such an object, having a like virtuous propensity, " is, as it were, enlarged, extends to, and in some son comprehends being in general." In brief, since God is the " being of beings " and com- prehends, in the fullest extent, benevolent consent to being in general, true virtue consists essentially in a supreme love to God. Thus the principle of virtue — Edwards has nothing to say of " morality ' — is identical with the principle of religion. From this standpoint Edwards combats every lower view. He will not admit that there is any evidence of true virtue in the approbation of virtue and hatred of vice, in the workings of conscience or in the exercises of the natural affections; he thinks that these may all spring from self-love and the association of ideas, from " instinct " or from a " moral sense of a secondary kind " entirely different from " a sense or relish of the essential beauty of true virtue." Nor does he recog- nize the possibility of a natural development of true virtue out of the sentiments directed on the " private systems " ; on the contrary, be sets the love of particular being, when not subordinated to being in general, in opposition to the latter and as equivalent to treating it with the greatest contempt. All that he allows is that the percep- tion at natural beauty may, by its resemblance to the primary spiritual beauty, quicken the disposition to divine love in those who are already under the influence of a truly virtuous temper. Closely connected with the essay on Virtue is the boldly specu- lative VtisfTtation on Ike End for v/hith Cod Created the World. As, according to the doctrine of virtue, God's virtue consists primarily in love to Himself, so His final end in creation is conceived to be, not as the Arminians held, the happiness of His creatures, but His own glory. Edwards supposes in the nature of God an original disposition to an " emanation " of His being, and it is the excellency of this divine being, particularly in the elect, which is, in his view, the final cause and motive of the world. Kilwards makes no attempt to reconcile the pantheistic clement in his philosophy with the individuality implied in moral government. He seems to waver between the opinion that finite individuals have no independent being and the opinion that they have it in an infinitesimal degree; and the conception of " degrees of existence " in the essay on Virtue is not developed to elucidate the point. His theological conception of God, at any rate, was not abstractly pantheistic, in spite of the abstract ness of his language about " being," but frankly t heist ic and trinitarian. He hem the doctrine of the trinitarian distinctions indeed to be a necessity of reason. His Essay on the Trinity, first printed in 1903, was long supposed to have been withheld from publication because of its containing Arian or Sabcllian tendencies. It contains in fact nothing more questionable than an attempted deduction of the orthodox Nicene doctrine, unpalatable, however, to Edwards's immediate disciples, who were too little speculative to appreciate his statement of the subordination of the " persons " in the divine " oeconomy," and who openly derided the doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son as "eternal nonsense"; and this perhaps was the original reason why the essay was not published. Though so typically a scholar and abstract thinker on the one hand and on the other a mystic, Edwards is best known to the present generation as a preacher of hell fire. The particular reason for this seems to lie in a single sermon preached at Enfield, Con- necticut, in July 1741 from the text, " Their foot shall slide in due time," and commonly known from its title, Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God. The occasion of this sermon is usually overlooked. It was preached to a congregation who were careless and loose in their lives at a time when " the neighbouring towns were in great distress for their souls." A contemporary account of it says that in spite of Edwards's academic style of preaching, the assembly was " deeply impressed and bowed down, with an awful conviction of their sin and danger. There was such a breathing of distress and weeping, that the preacher was obliged to speak to the people and desire silence, that he might be heard." Edwards preached other sermons of this type, but this one was the most extreme. The style of the imprecatory sermon, however, was no more peculiar to him than to his period. He was not a great preacher in the ordinary meaning of the word. His gestures were scanty, his voice was not powerful, but he was desperately in earnest, and he held his audience whether his sermon contained a picturesque and de- tailed description of the torments of the damned, or, as was often the case, spoke of the love and peace of God in the heart of man. He was an earnest, devout Christian, and a man of blameless life. His insight into the spiritual life was profound. Certainly the most able metaphysician and the most influential religious thinker of America, he must rank in theology, dialectics, mysticism and philo- sophy with Calvin and Fenelon, Augustine and Aquinas, Spinoza and Novalis; with Berkeley and Hume as the great English philo- sophers of the i8th century; and with Hamilton and Franklin as the three American thinkers of the same century of more than provincial importance. Edwards's main aim had been to revivify Calvinism, modifyjng it for the needs of the time, and to promote a warm and vital Christian piety. The tendency of his successors was — to state the matter roughly — to take some one of his theories and develop it to an extreme. Of his immediate followers Joseph Bellamy is distinctly Edwardean in the keen logic and in the spirit of his True Religion Delineated, but he breaks with his master in his theory of general (not limited) atonement. Samuel Hopkins laid even greater stress than Edwards on the theorem that virtue consists in disinterested benevolence; but he went counter to Edwards in holding that un- conditional resignation to God's decrees, or more concretely, willing- ness to be damned for the glory of God, was the test of true regenera- tion; for Edwards, though often quoted as holding this doctrine, protested against it in the strongest terms. Hopkins, moreover, denied Edwards's identity theory of original sin, saying that our sin was a result of Adam s and not identical with it; and he went much further than Edwards in his objection to " means of grace," claiming that the unregenerate were more and more guilty for continual rejection of the gospel if they were outwardly righteous and availed themselves of the means of grace. Stephen West (1735- 1819), too, out-Edwardsed Edwards in his defence of the treatise on the Freedom of the Will, and John Smalley (1734-1820) developed the idea of a natural (not moral) inability on the part of man to obey God. Emmons, like Hopkins, considered both sin and holiness "exercises" of the will. Timothy Dwight _(i752-i847) urged the use of the means of grace, thought Hopkins and Emmons pan- theistic, and boldly disagreed with their theory of " exercises," reckon- ing virtue and sin as the result of moral choice or disposition, a position that was also upheld by Asa Burton (1752-1836), who thought that on regeneration the disposition of man got a new relish or " taste." JONATHAN EDWARDS' the younger (1745-1801), second son of 1 Besides the younger Jonathan many of Edwards's descendants EDWARDS, LEWIS— EDWARDS, RICHARD the philosopher, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 26th of May 1745, also takes an important place among his followers. He lived in Stockbridge in 1751-1755 and spoke the language of the Housatonic Indians with ease, for six months studied among the Oneidas, graduated at Princeton in 1765, studied theology at Bethlehem, Connecticut, under Joseph Bellamy , was licensed to preach in 1766, was a tutor at Princeton in 1766—1769, and was paster of the White Haven Church, New Haven, Connecticut, in 1769-1795, being then dismissed for the nominal reason that the church could not support him, but actually because of his opposition to the Half- Way Covenant as well as to slavery and the slave trade. He preached at Colebrook, Connecticut, in 1796-1799 and then becan e president of Union College, Schenectady, New York, where he died on the 1st of August 1801. His studies of the Indian dialects were scholarly and valuable. He edited his father's incomplete History of the Work of Redemption, wrote in answer to Stephen West, A Dissertation Concerning Liberty and Necessity (1797), which defended his father's work on the Will by a rather strained interpretation, and in answer to Chauncy on universal salvation formulated what is known as the " Edwardean," New England or Governmental theory of the atonement in The Necessity of the Atonement and its Consistency with Free Grace in Forgiveness (1785). His collected works were edited by his grandson Tryon Edwards in two volumes, with memoir (Andover, 1842). His place in the Edwardean theo- logy is principally due to his defence against the Universalists of his father's doctrine of the atonement, namely, that Christ's death, being the equivalent of the eternal punishment of sinners, upheld the authority of the divine law, but did not pay any debt, and made the pardon of all men a possibility with God, but not a necessity. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — There have been various editions of Edwards's works. His pupil, Samuel Hopkins, in 1765 published two volun.es from manuscript containing eighteen sermons and a memoir; the younger Jonathan Edwards with Dr Erskine published an edition in 4 volumes (1744 sqq.), and Samuel Austin in 1808 edited an edition in 8 volumes. In 1829 Sereno E. Dwight, a great-grand sen of Edwards, published the Life and Works in 10 volumes, the first volume containing the memoir, which is still the most complete and was the standard until the publication (Boston, 1889) of Jonathan Edwards, by A. V. G. Allen, who attempts to "distinguish what he (Edwards) meant to affirm from what he actually teaches." In 1865 the Rev. Alexander B. Grpsart edited from original manu- scripts Selections from the Unpublished Writings of Jonathan Edwards of America (Edinburgh, 1865, printed for private circulation). This was the only part of a complete edition planned by Grosart that e\ er appeared. It contained the important Treatise on Grace, Anno- tations on the Bible, Directions for Judging of Persons' Experiences, and Sermons, the last for the most part merely in outline. E. C. Smyth published from a copy Observations Concerning the^ Scripture Oeconomy of the Trinity and Covenant of Redemption (New York, 1880), a careful edition from the manuscript of the essay on the Flying Spider (in the Andover Review, January 1890) and " Some Early Writings of Jonathan Edwards," with specimens from the manuscripts (in Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, October, 1895). In 1900 on the death of Prof. Edwards A. Park, the entire collection of Edwards's manuscripts loaned to him by Tryon Edwards was transferred to Yale University. Professor Park, like Mr. Grosart before him, had been unable to accomplish the great task of editing this mass of manuscript. " A Study of the Manuscripts of Jonathan Edwards " was published by F. B. Dexter in the Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, series 2, vol. xv. (Boston, 1902), and in the same volume of the Proceedings appeared " A Study of the Shorthand Writings of Jonathan Edwards," by W. P. Upham. The long sought for essay on the Trinity was edited (New York, 1903) with valuable introduction and appendices by G. P. Fisher under the title, An Unpublished Essay of Edwards's on the Trinity. The only other edition of Edwards (in whole or in part) of any importance is Selected Sermons of Jonathan Edwards (New York, 1904), edited by H. N. Gardiner, with brief biographical sketch and annotations on seven sermons, one of which had not previously been published. For estimates of Edwards consult : The Volume of the Edwards Family Meeting at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, September 6-f, A.D. 1870 (Boston, 1871); Jonathan Edwards, a Retrospect, Being the Addresses Delivered in Connecticut with the Unveiling of a Memorial were great, brilliant or versatile men. Among them were: his son Pierrepont (1750-1826), a brilliant but erratic member of the Connecticut bar, tolerant in religious matters and bitterlv hated by stern Calvinists, a man whose personal morality resembled greatly that of Aaron Burr; his grandsons, William Edwards (1770-1851), an inventor of important leather rolling machinery ; Aaron Burr the son of Esther Edwards; Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), son of Mary Kd wards, and his brother Theodore Dwight, a Federalist politician, a member, the secretary and the historian of the Hartford Con- vention; his great-grandsons, Tryon Edwards (1809-1894) and Sereno Edwards Dwight, theologian, educationalist and author; and his great-great-grandsons, Theodore William Dwight,_ the jurist, and Timothy Dwi?ht, second of that name to be president of Yale. in the First Church of Christ in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of his Dismissal from the Pastorate of that Church, edited by H. N. Gardiner (Boston, 1901); Exercises Commemorating the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Jonathan Edwards, held at Andover Theological Seminary, October 4-3, 1903 (Andover, 1904) ; and among the addresses de- livered at Stockbridge in October 1903, John De Witt, " Jonathan Edwards: A Study," in the Princeton Theological Review (January, 1904). Also H. C. King, " Edwards as Philosopher and Theo- logian," in Hartford Theological Seminary Record, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 23-57; H. N. Gardiner, "The Early Idealism of Jonathan Edwards," in the Philosophical Review, vol. ix. (1900), pp. 573-596; E. C. Smyth, American Journal of Theology, vol. i. (1897), pp. 960-964 ; Samuel P. Hayes, " An Historical Study of the Edwardean Re- vivals," in American Journal of Psychology, vol. xiii. (1902), pp. 550 fF. ; J. H. MacCracken, " Philosophical Idealism of Edwards" in Philosophical Review, vol. xi. (1902), pp. 26-42, suggesting that Edwards did not know Berkeley, but Collier, and the same author's Jonathan Edwards' Idealismus (Halle, 1899) ; F. J. E. Woodbridge, " Jonathan Edwards," in Philosophical Review, vol. xiii. (1904) PP- 393-4o8; W. H. Squires, Jonathan Edwards und seine Willens- lehre (Leipzig, 1901) ; Samuel Simpson, " Jonathan Edwards, A Historical Review," in Hartford Seminary Record, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 3-22 ; and The Edwardean, a Quarterly Devoted to the History of Thought in America (Clinton, New York, 1903-1904), edited by W. H. Squires, of which only four parts appeared, all devoted to Edwards and all written by Squires. (H. N. G.; R. WE.) EDWARDS, LEWIS (1809-1887), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born in the parish of Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardigan- shire, on the 27th of October 1809. He was educated at Aberystwyth and at Llangeitho, and then himself kept school in both these places. He had already begun to preach for the Calvinistic Methodists when, in December 1830, he went to London to take advantage of the newly-opened university. In 1832 he settled as minister at Laugharne in Carmarthenshire, and the following year went to Edinburgh, where a special resolution of the senate allowed him to graduate at the end of his third session. He was now better able to further his plans for providing a trained ministry for his church. Previoisly, the success of the Methodist preachers had been due mainly to their natural gifts. Edwards made his home at Bala, and there, in 1837, with David Charles, his brother-in-law, he opened a school, which ultimately became the denominational college for north Wales. He died on the ipth of July 1887. Edwards may fairly be called one of the makers of modern Wales. Through his hands there passed generation after genera- tion of preachers, who carried his influence to every corner of the principality. By fostering competitive meetings and by his writings, especially in Y Traethodydd (" The Essa) ist "), a quarterly magazine which he founded in 1845 and edited for ten years, he did much to inform and educate his countrymen on literary and theological subjects. A new college was built at Bala in 1867, for which he raised £10,000. His chief publica- tion was a noteworthy book on The Doctrine of the Atonement, cast in the form of a dialogue between master and pupil; the treat- ment is forensic, and emphasis is laid on merit. It was due to him that the North and South Wales Calvinistic Methodist Associa- tions united to form an annual General Assembly; he was its moderator in 1866 and again in 1876. He was successful in bringing the various churches of the Presbyterian order into closer touch with each other, and unwearying in his efforts to promote education for his countrymen. See Bywyd a Llythyrau y Parch, (i.e. Life and Letters of the Rev.) Lewis Edwards, D.D., by his son T. C. Edwards. EDWARDS, RICHARD (c. 1523-1566), English musician and playwright, was born in Somersetshire, became a scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1540, and took his M. A. degree in 1547. He was appointed in 1561 a gentleman of the chapel royal and master of the children, and entered Lincoln's Inn in 1564, where at Christmas in that year he produced a play which was acted by his choir boys. On the 3rd of September 1566 his play, Palamon and Arcite, was performed before Queen Elizabeth in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford. Another play, Damon and Pithias, tragic in subject but with scenes of vulgar farce, entered at Stationers' Hall in 1567-8, appeared in 1571 and was reprinted in 1582; it may be found in Dodsley's EDWARDS, T. C— EDWIN, JOHN Old Plays, vol. i., and Ancient British Drama, vol. i. It is written in rhymed lines of rude construction, varying in length and neglecting the caesura. .\ number of the author's shorter pieces mre preserved in the Paradise of Dainty Devices, first published in 1575, and reprinted in the British Bibliographer, vol. iii.; the best known are the lines on May, the Amanlium Irae, and the Commendation of Music, which has the honour of furnishing a stanza to Romeo and Juliet. The Hislorie of Damocles and Dianise is assigned to him in the 1578 edition of the Paradise. John Hawkins credited him with the part song " In going to my lonely bed "; the words are certainly his, and probably the music. In his own day Edwards was highly esteemed. The fine poem, " The Soul's Knell," is supposed to have been written by him when dying. See Crate's Diet, of Music (new edition); the Shakespeare Sac. Papers, vol. ii. art. vi. ; Ward, English Dram. Literature, vol. i. EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES (1837-1000), Welsh Non- conformist divine and educationist, was born at Bala, Merioneth, on the iind of September 1837, the son of Lewis Edwards (q.v.). HU resolve to become a minister was deepened by the revival of 1858-1859. After taking his degrees at London (B. A. i86i,M.A. 1862), he matriculated at St Alban Hall, Oxford, in October 1862, the university having just been opened to dissenters. He obtained a scholarship at Lincoln College in 1864, and took a first class in the school of Literae Humaniores in 1866. He was especially influenced by MarkPattison and Jowctt ,who counselled him to be true to the church of his father, in which he had already been ordained. Early in 1867 he became minister at Windsor Street, Liverpool, but left it to become first principal of the University College of Wales at Aberystwyth, which had been established through the efforts of Sir Hugh Owen and other enthusiasts. The college was opened with a staff of three pro- fessors and twenty-five students in October 1872, and for some years its career was chequered enough. Edwards, however, proved a skilful pilot, and his hold on the affection of the Welsh people enabled him to raise the college to a high level of efficiency. When it was destroyed by fire in 1885 he collected £25,000 to rebuild it ; the remainder of the necessary £40,000 being given by the government C£io,ooo) and by the people of Aberystwyth (£5000). In 1891 he gave up what had been the main work of his life to accept an undertaking that was even nearer his heart, the principalship of the theological college at Bala. A stroke of paralysis in 1804 fatally weakened him, but he continued at work till his death on the 22nd of March 1000. The Calvinistic Methodist Church of Wales bestowed on him every honour in their possession, and he received the degreeof D.D. from the universities of Edinburgh (1887) and Wales (1808). His chief works were a Commentary on I Corinthians (1885), the Epistle to the Hebrews (" Expositor's Bible " series, 1888), and The Cod-Man (" Davies Lecture," 1805). EDWARDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the south-western part of the state, on Cahokia Creek, about 18 m. N.E. of St Louis. Pop. (1800) 3561 ; (IQOO) 4157 (573 forei>m-born); (1910) 5014. Edwardsville is served by the Toledo, St Louis & Western, the Wabash, the Litchfield & Madison, and the Illinois Terminal railways, and is connected with St Louis by three electric lines. It has a Carnegie library. The city's principal manufactures are carriages, ploughs, brick, machinery, sanitary ware and plumber's goods. Bitu- minous coal is extensively mined in the vicinity. Adjoining Edwardsville is the co-operative village Leclaire(unincorporated), with the factory of the X.O. Nelson Manufacturing Co., makers of plumber's supplies, brass goods, sanitary fixtures, &c.; the village was founded in 1800 by Nelson O. Nelson (b. 1844), and nearly all of the residents are employed by the company of which he is the bead ; they share to a certain extent in its profits, and are encouraged to own their own homes. The company supports a school, Ledaire Academy, and has built a club-house, bowling alleys, tennis-courts, base-ball grounds, tic. The first settlement on the site of Edwardsville was made in 1812, and in 1815 the town was laid out and named in honour of Ninian Edwards (1775-1833), the governor of the Illinois .Territory (1800-1818), and later United States senator (1818-1824) and governor of the state of Illinois (1826-1830). Edwardsville was incorporated in i8ig and received its present charter in 1872. EDWARDSVILLE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsyl- vania, U.S.A., on the north branch of the Susquehanna river, adjoining Kingston and close to the north-western limits of Wilkes-Barre (on the opposite side of the river), in the north- eastern part of the state; the official name of the post office is Edwardsdale. Pop. (1890), 3284; (1900), 5165, of whom 2645 were foreign-born ; ( 1 9 1 o census) , 8407 . It is served by the electric line of the Wilkes-Barre & Wyoming Valley Traction Co. Coal mining and brewing arc the chief industries. Edwardsville was incorporated in 1884. EDWIN, AEDUINI or EDWINE (585-633), king of Northumbria, was the son of Ella of Deira. On the seizure of Deira by ./Ethel- frith of Bcrnicia (probably 605), Edwin was expelled and is said to have taken refuge with Cadfan, king of Gwynedd. After the battle of Chester, in which jEthelfrith defeated the Welsh, Edwin fled to Roedwald, the powerful king of East Anglia, who after some wavering espoused his cause and defeated and slew /Ethelfrith at the river Idle in 617. Edwin thereupon succeeded to the Northumbrian throne, driving out the sons of ./Ethelfrith. There is little evidence of external activity on the part of Edwin before 625. It is probable that the conquest of the Celtic kingdom of Elmet, a district in the neighbourhood of the modern Leeds, ruled over by a king named Cerdic (Ceredig) is to be referred to this period, and this may have led to the later quarrel with Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd. Edwin seems also to have annexed Lindsey to his kingdom by 625. In this year he entered upon negotiations with Eadbald of Kent for a marriage with his sister /Ethelberg. It was made a condition that Christianity should be tolerated in Northumbria, and accordingly Paulinus was con- secrated bishop by Justus in 625, and was sent to Northumbria with jEthelberg. According to Bede, Edwin was favourably disposed towards Christianity owing to a vision he had seen at the court of Roedwald, and in 626 he allowed Eanfled, his daughter by /Ethelberg, to be baptized. On the day of the birth of his daughter, the king's life had been attempted by Eomer, an emissary of Cwichelm,king of Wessex. Preserved by the devotion of his thegn Lilla,Edwin vowed to become a Christian if victorious over his treacherous enemy. He was successful in the ensuing campaign, and abstained from the worship of the gods of his race. A letter of Pope Boniface helped to decide him, and after con- sulting his friends and counsellors, of whom the priest Coifi afterwards took a prominent part in destroying the temple at Goodmanham, he was baptized with his people and nobles at York, at Easter 627. In this town he granted Paulinus a see, built a wooden church and began one of stone. Besides York, Yeavering and Maelmin in Bernicia, and Catterick in Deira, were the chief scenes of the work of Paulinus. It was the influence of Edwin which led to the conversion of Eorpwald of East Anglia. Bede notices the peaceful state of Britain at this time, and relates that Edwin was preceded on his progresses by a kind of standard like that borne before the Roman emperors. In 633 Cadwallon of North Wales and Penda of Mercia rose against Edwin and slew him at Hatfield near Doncaster. His kinsman Osric succeeded in Deira, and Eanfrith the son of ,/Ethelfrith in Bernicia. Bede tells us that Edwin had subdued the islands of Anglesey and Man, and the Annales Cambriae record that he besieged Cadwallon (perhaps in 6.52) in the island of Glannauc (Puffin Island) . He was definitely recognized as overlord by all the other Anglo-Saxon kings of his day except Eadbald of Kent. See Bede, Hist. Eccl. (ed. Plummer, Oxford, 1806), ii. 5, 9, n, 12, 13. '5. 1 6, 18, 20; Nennius (ed. San Marti-, 1844), § 63; Vita S. Oswaldi, ix. Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, London, 1882-1885, vol. i. R.S.). (F. G. M. B.) EDWIN, JOHN (1740-1790), English actor, was born in London on the loth of August 1749, the son of a watchmaker. As a youth, he appeared In the provinces, in minor parts; and at Bath in 1768 he formed a connexion with a Mrs Walmsley, a milliner, who bore him a son, but whom he afterwards deserted. His first London appearance was at the Haymarket in 1776 as 8 EDWY THE FAIR— EEL Flaw in Samuel Foote's The Cozeners, but when George Colman took over the theatre he was given better parts and became its leading actor. In 1779 he was at Covent Garden, and played there or at the Haymarket until his death on the 3ist of October 1790. Ascribed to him are The Last Legacy of John Edwin, 1780; Edwin's Jests and Edwin's Pills to Purge Melancholy. His son, JOHN EDWIN (1768-1805), made a first appearance on the stage at the Haymarket as Hengo in Beaumont and Fletcher's Bonduca in 1778, and from that time acted frequently with his father, and managed the private theatricals organized by his intimate friend Lord Barrymore at Wargrave, Berks. In 1791 he married Elizabeth Rebecca Richards, an actress already well known in juvenile parts, and played at the Hay- market and elsewhere thereafter with her. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of February 1805. His widow joined the Drury Lane company (then playing, on account of the fire of 1809, at the Lyceum), and took all the leading characters in the comedies of the day. She died on the 3rd of August 1854. EDWY (EADWIG), "THE FAIR" (c. 940-959), king of the English, was the' eldest son of King Edmund and JEUgif u, and succeeded his uncle Eadred in 955, when he was little more than fifteen years old. He was crowned at Kingston by Archbishop Odo, and his troubles began at the coronation feast. He had retired to enjoy the company of the ladies ^Ethelgifu (perhaps his foster-mother) and her daughter ^Elfgifu, whom the king intended to marry. The nobles resented the king's withdrawal, and he was induced by Duns tan and Cynesige, bishop of Lichfield, to return to the feast. Edwy naturally resented this inter- ference, and in 957 Dunstan was driven into exile. By the year 956 iElfgifu had become the king's wife, but in 958 Archbishop Odo of Canterbury secured their separation on the ground of their being too closely akin. Edwy, to judge from the dis- proportionately large numbers of charters issued during his reign, seems to have been weakly lavish in the granting of privileges, and soon the chief men of Mercia and Northumbria were disgusted by his partiality for Wessex. The result was that in the year 957 his brother, the ^Etheling Edgar, was chosen as king by the Mercians and Northumbrians. It is probable that no actual conflict took place, and in 959, on Edwy's death, Edgar acceded peaceably to the combined kingdoms of Wessex, Mercia and Northumbria. AUTHORITIES. — Saxon Chronicle (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford), sub ann. ; Memorials of St Dunstan (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series) ; William of Malmesbury, Gesta regum (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum, vol. ii. Nos. 932-1046; Florence of Worcester. EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN (1621-1674), Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam on the igth of August 1621, entered early into the studio of Rembrandt. Though a companion pupil to F. Bol and Govaert Flinck, he was inferior to both in skill and in the extent of his practice; yet at an early period he assumed Rembrandt's manner with such success that his pictures were confounded with those of his master; and, even in modern days, the " Resurrection of the Daughter of Jairus," in the Berlin museum, and the " Presentation in the Temple," in the Dresden gallery, have been held to represent worthily the style of Rembrandt. As evidence of the fidelity of Eeckhout's imitation we may cite his " Presentation in the Temple," at Berlin, which is executed after Rembrandt's print of 1630, and his " Tobit with the Angel," at Brunswick, which is composed on the same background as Rembrandt's " Philosopher in Thought." Eeckhout not merely copies the subjects; he also takes the shapes, the figures, the Jewish dress and the pictorial effects of his master. It is difficult to form an exact judgment of Eeckhout's qualities at the outset of his career. His earliest pieces are probably those in which he more faithfully reproduced Rembrandt's peculiarities. Exclusively his is a tinge of green in shadows marring the harmony of the work, a certain gaudiness of jarring tints, uniform surface and a touch more quick than subtle. Besides the pictures already mentioned we should class amongst early productions on this account the " Woman taken in Adultery," at Amsterdam; " Anna presenting her Son to the High Priest," in the Louvre; the " Epiphany," at Turin; and the " Circumcision," at Cassel. Eeckhout matriculated early in the Gild of Amsterdam. A likeness of a lady at a dressing- table with a string of beads, at Vienna, bears the date of 1643, and proves that the master at this time possessed more imitative skill than genuine mastery over nature. As he grew older he succeeded best in portraits, a very fair example of which is that of the historian Dappers (1669), in the Stadel collection. Eeck- hout occasionally varied his style so as to recall in later years the " small masters " of the Dutch school. Waagen justly draws attention to his following of Terburg in " Gambling Soldiers," at Stafford House, and a " Soldiers' Merrymaking," in the collec- tion of the marquess of Bute. A " Sportsman with Hounds," probably executed in 1670, now in the Vander Hoo gallery, and a " Group of Children with Goats " (1671), in the Hermitage, hardly exhibit a trace of the artist's first education. Amongst the best of Eeckhout's works " Christ in the Temple " (1662), at Munich, and the " Haman and Mordecai " of 1665, at Luton House, occupy a good place. Eeckhout died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of October 1674. EEL. The common freshwater eel (Lat. anguilla; O. Eng. , Lat. ovum), the female reproductive cell or ovum of animals, which gives rise generally only after fertilization to the young. The largest eggs are those of birds; and this because, to the minute essential portion of the egg, or germ, from which the young bird grows, there is added a large store of food-material — the yolk and white of the egg — destined to nourish the growing embryo while the whole is enclosed within a hard shell. The relative sizes of eggs depend entirely on the amount of the food-yolk thus enclosed with the germ; while the form and texture of the outer envelope are determined by the nature of the environment to which the egg is exposed. Where the food material is infinitesimal in quantity the egg is either not ex- truded— the embryo being nourished by the maternal tissues, — or it passes out of the parental body and gives rise at once to a free-living organism or " larva " (see LARVAL FORMS), as in the case of many lowly freshwater and marine animals. In such cases no " egg " in the usual sense of the term is produced. The number of eggs periodically produced by any given individual depends on the risks of destruction to which they, and the young to which they give rise, are exposed: not more than a single egg being annually laid by some species, while with others the number may amount to millions. Birds' Eggs. — The egg of the bird affords, for general purposes, the readiest example of the modifications imposed on eggs by the external environment. Since it must be incubated by the warmth of the parent's body, the outer envelope has taken the form of a hard shell for the protection of the growing chick from pressure, while the dyes which commonly colour the surface of this shell serve as a screen to hide it from egg-eating animals. Carbonate of lime forms the principal constituent of this shell; but in addition phosphate of lime and magnesia are also present. In section, this shell will be found to be made up of three more or less distinct crystalline layers, traversed by vertical canals, whereby the shell is made porous so as to admit air to the developing chick. The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often takes the form of a glaze, as of procelain, as for example in the burnished egg of the ostrich: or it may assume the character of a thick, chalky layer as in some cuckoos (Guira, Crotophaga ant), cormorants, grebes and flamingoes: while in some birds as in the auks, gulls and tinamous, this outer layer is wanting; yet the tinamous have the most highly glazed eggs of all birds, the second layer of the shell developing a surface even more perfectly burnished than that formed by the outermost, third layer in the ostrich. While the eggs of some birds have the shell so thin as to be translucent, e.g. kingfisher, others display considerable thickness, the maximum being reached in the egg of the extinct Aepyornis. Though in shape differing but little from that of the familiar hen's egg, certain well-marked modifications of form are yet to be met with. Thus the eggs of the plover are pear-shaped, of the sand-grouse more or less cylindrical, of the owls and titmice spherical and of the grebes biconical . In the matter of coloration the eggs of birds present a remark- able range. The pigments to which this coloration is due have been shown, by means of their absorption spectra (Sorby, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875), to be seven in number. The first of these, oorhodeine, is brown-red in tone, and rarely absent: the second and third, oocyanin, and banded oocyanin, are of a beautiful blue, and though differing spectroscopically give rise to the same product when oxidized : the fourth and fifth are yellow, and rufous ooxanthine, the former combining with oocyanin gives rise to the wonderful malachite green of the emu's egg, while the latter occurs only in the eggs of tinamous: the sixth is lichenoxanthine, a pigment not yet thoroughly known but present in the shells of all eggs having a peculiar brick-red colour. Still less is known of EGG the seventh pigment which is, as yet, nameless. It is a substance giving a banded absorption spectrum, and which, mixed with other pigments, imparts an abnormally browner tint. The origin of these pigments is yet uncertain, but it is probable that they are derived from the haemoglobin or red colouring matter of the blood. This being so, then the pigments of the egg-shell differ entirely in their nature from those which colour the yolk or the feathers. While many eggs are either colourless or of one uniform tint, the majority have the surface broken up by spots or lines, or a combination of both, of varying tints: the pigment being deposited as the egg passes down the lower portion of the oviduct. That the egg during this passage turns slowly on its long axis is shown by the fact that the spots and lines have commonly a spiral direction; though some of the markings are made during periods of rest, as is shown by their sharp outlines, movement giving a blurred effect. Where the egg is pyriform, the large end makes way for the smaller. Many eggs display, in addition to the strongly marked spots, more or fewer fainter spots embedded in a deeper layer of the shell, and hence such eggs are said to be " double-spotted," e.g. rails and plovers. Among some species, as in birds of prey, the intensity of this coloration is said to increase with age up to a certain point, when it as gradually decreases. Frequently, especially where but two eggs are laid (Newton), all the dye will be deposited, sometimes on the first, sometimes on the last laid, leaving the other colour- less. But although of a number of eggs in a " clutch " — as the full complement of eggs in a nest is called — no two are exactly alike, they commonly bear a very close resemblance. Among certain species, however, which lay several eggs, one of the number invariably differs markedly from the rest, as for example in the eggs of the house-sparrow or in those of the sparrow-hawk, where, of a clutch of six, two generally differ conspicuously from the rest. Differing though these eggs do from the rest of the clutch, all yet present the characters common to the species. But the eggs of some birds, such as the Australian swamp quail, Synoecus auslralis, present a remarkably wide range of variation in the matter of coloration, no two clutches being alike, the ex- tremes ranging from pure white to eggs having a greenish ground colour and rufous spots or blotches. But a still more interesting illustration of variation equally marked is furnished by the chikor partridge (Caccabis chukar), since here the variation appears to be correlated with the geographical distribution of the species. Thus eggs taken in Greece are for the most part cream- coloured and unspotted; those from the Grecian Archipelago are generally spotted and blotched; while more to the eastward spots are invariably present, and the blotches attain their maximum development. But in variability the eggs of the guillemot (Lomma troile) exceed all others: both in the hue of the ground colour and in the form of the superimposed markings, these eggs exhibit a wonderful range for which no adequate explanation has yet been given. Individual peculiarities of coloration are commonly repro- duced, not only with this species but also in others, year after year. The coloration of the egg bears no sort of relation to the coloration of the bird which lays it; but it bears on the other signifi- hand a more or less direct relation to the nature of the caaceot environment during incubation. colour. White eggs may generally be regarded as repre- senting the primitive type of egg, since they agree in this particular with the eggs of reptiles. And it will generally be found that eggs of this hue are deposited in holes or in domed nests. So long indeed as nesting-places of this kind are used will the eggs be white. And this because coloured eggs would be invisible in dimly lighted chambers of this description, and therefore constantly exposed to the risk of being broken by the sitting bird, or rolling out of reach where the chamber was large enough to admit of this, whereas white eggs are visible so long as they can be reached by the faintest rays of light. Pigeons invariably lay white eggs; and while some deposit them in holes others build an open nest, a mere platform of sticks. These exceptions to the rule show that the depredations of egg-eating animals are sufficiently guarded against by the overhanging foh'age, as well as by the great distance from the ground at which the nest is built. Birds which have reverted to the more ancient custom of nesting in holes after having developed pigmented eggs, have adopted the device of covering the shell with a layer of chalky matter (e.g. puffins), or, to put the case more correctly, they have been enabled to maintain survival after their return to the more ancient mode of nidification, because this reversion was accompanied by the tendency to cover the pigmented surface of the shell with this light-reflecting chalky incrustation. Eggs which are deposited on the bare ground, or in other exposed situations, are usually protectively coloured: that is to say, the hue of the shell more or less completely harmonizes with the ground on which the egg is placed. The eggs of the plover tribe afford the most striking examples of this fact. But the majority of birds deposit their eggs in a more or less elaborately constructed nest, and in such cases the egg, so far from being protectively coloured, often displays tints that would appear calculated rather to attract the attention of egg-stealing animals; bright blue or blue spotted with black being commonly met with. It may be, however, that coloration of this kind is less conspicuous than is generally supposed, but in any case the safety of the egg depends not so much on its coloration as on the character of the nest, which, where protective devices are necessary, must harmonize sufficiently with its surroundings to escape observation from prowling egg-stealers of all kinds. The size of the egg depends partly on the number produced and partly on the conditions determining the state of the young bird at hatching: hence there is a great disparity in the relative sizes of the eggs of different birds. Thus it will be found that young birds which emerge in the world blind, naked and helpless are the product of relatively small eggs, while on the contrary young hatched from relatively large eggs are down-clad and active from birth. The fact that the eggs must be brooded by the parent is also a controlling factor in so far as number is concerned, for no more pan be hatched than can be covered by the sitting bird. Other factors, however, less understood, also exercise a controlling influence in this matter. Thus the ostrich lays from 12 to 1 6, the teal 15, the partridge 12-20, while among many other species the number is strictly limited, as in the case of the hornbills and guillemots, which lay but a single egg; the apteryx, divers, petrels and pigeons never lay more than 2, while the gulls and plovers never exceed 4. Tropical species are said to lay fewer eggs than their representatives in temperate regions, and further immature birds lay more and smaller eggs than when fully adult. Partly owing to the uniformity of shape, size and texture of the shell, the eggs of birds are by no means easy to distinguish, except in so far as their family resemblances are concerned: that is to say, except in particular cases, they cannot be specifically distinguished, and hence they are of but little or no value for the purposes of classification. Save only among the megapodes, all birds brood their eggs, the period of incubation varying from 13 days, as in small passerine birds, to 8 weeks, as in the cassowary, though eggs of the rhea and of Strulhio hatch in from 5 to 6 weeks. But the megapodes deposit their eggs in mounds of decaying vegetable matter or in sand in the neighbourhood of hot springs, and there without further apparent care leave them. Where the nestling is active from the moment of hatching the eggs have a relatively longer incubation period than in cases where the nestlings are for a long while helpless. Eggs of Mammals. — Only in the spiny ant-eater, or Echidna, and the duck-billed platypus, or Ornilhorhynchus, among the Mammalia, are the eggs provided with a large store of yolk, enclosed within a shell, and extruded to undergo development apart from the maternal tissues. In the case of the echidna the eggs, two in number, are about as large as those of a sparrow. EGG similar in shape, and have a white, parchment-like shell. After ilsion they are transferred by the beak of the mother to a pouch resembling that of the marsupial kangaroos, and there they undergo development. The Ornithorhynchus, on the other hand, lays from two to four eggs, which in size and general appearance resemble those of the echidna. They are, how- ever, deposited in a loosely constructed nest at the end of a long burrow and there brooded. In Marsupials, the eggs are smaller than those of Echidna and Ornilhorhynchus, and they contain a larger proportion of yolk than occurs in higher of Reptiles. — The eggs of reptiles are invariably provided with a large amount of food yolk and enclosed with a firm test or shell, which though generally parchment-like in texture may be calcareous as in birds, as, for example, in many of the tortoises and turtles and in the crocodiles. Among reptiles the egg is always white or yellowish, while the number kid often far exceeds that in the case of birds. The tuatara of New Zealand, however, lays but ten — white hard- shelled, long and oval — at intervals between November and January. The long intervals between the appearance of the successive eggs is a characteristic feature of the reptiles, but is met with among the birds only in the megapodes, which, like the reptiles, do not " brood " their eggs. Among the Chelonia the number of eggs varies from two to four in some of the tortoises, to 200 in some of the turtles: while in the crocodiles between 20 and 30 are produced, hard-shelled and white. The eggs of the lizards are always white or yellowish, and generally soft-shelled; but the geckos and the green lizard lay hard-shelled eggs. Many of the soft-shelled eggs are remarkable for the fact that they increase in size after extrusion, owing to the stretching of the membranous shell by the growing embryo. In the matter of number lizards are less prolific than many of the Chelonia, a dozen eggs being the general number, though as many as thirty may be produced at a time, as in the case of the common chameleon. While as a general rule the eggs of lizards are laid in burrows or buried, some are retained within the body of the parent until the young are ready to emerge; or they may even hatch within the oviduct. This occurs with some chameleons and some lizards, e. g. the slow-worm. The common English lizard is also viviparous. Normally the young leaves the egg immediately after its ex- trusion, but if by any chance this extrusion is delayed they escape while yet in the oviduct. The majority of the snakes lay eggs, but most of the vipers and the aquatic snakes are viviparous, as also are a few terrestrial species. The shell of the egg is always soft and parchment-like. As a rule the number of eggs produced among the snakes is not large, twenty or thirty being common, but some species of python lay as many as a hundred. Generally, among the oviparous snakes the eggs are buried, but some species of boas jealously guard them, enclosing them within the coils of the body. Egfs of Amphibia. — Among the amphibia a greater variety obtains in the matter of the investment of the egg, as well as in the number, size and method of their disposal. The outer covering is formed by a toughening of the surface of a thick gelatinous coat which surrounds the essential parts of the egg. This coat in many species of salamander — using this name in the wide sense— is produced into threads which serve either to anchor the eggs singly or to bind them together in bunches. Viviparity occurs both among the limbless and the tailed Amphibia, the eggs hatching before they leave the oviduct or immediately after extrusion. The number of young so produced is generally not large, but the common salamander (Salamandra mocHloto) may produce as many as fifty at a birth, though fifteen is the more normal figure. When the higher number is reached the young are relatively small and weak. As a rule among the Amphibia the young leave the egg in the form of larvae, generally known as " tadpoles "; but many species produce eggs containing a sufficient amount of food material to enable the whole of the larval phase to be completed before hatching. Among the tailless Amphibia (frogs and toads) there are wide differences in the number of eggs produced, while the methods by which these eggs arc disposed of present a marvellous variety. As a rule vast quantities of eggs are shed by the female into the water in the form of " spawn." In the common toad as many as 7000 eggs may be extruded at a time. These leave the body in the form of two long strings — one from each oviduct — of trans- lucent globules, gelatinous in texture, and enclosing a central sphere of yolk, the upper pole of which is black. The spawn of the common frog differs from that of the toad in that the eggs all adhere to form a huge jelly-like mass. But in many species the number of eggs produced are few; and these may be sufficiently stored with food-yolk to allow of the tadpole stage being passed before hatching, as in frogs of the genus Hylodes. In many cases the eggs are deposited out of the water and often in quite remarkable ways. Eggs of Fishes. — The eggs of fishes present an extremely wide range of form, and a no less extensive range in the matter of number. Both among the cartilaginous and bony fishes vivi- parity occurs. Most of the sharks and rays are viviparous, but in the oviparous species the eggs present some interesting and peculiar forms. Large in size, the outer coat or " shell " is in all cases horn-like and flexible, but differs greatly in shape. Thus in the egg of the larger spotted dog-fish it is oblong in shape, flattened from side to side, and has the angles produced into long, slender tendrils. As the egg is laid the lower tendrils project from the vent, and the mother rubs herself against some fixed body. The tendrils soon catch fast in some slight projection, when the egg is dragged forth there to remain till hatching takes place. A couple of narrow slits at each corner of the upper end serve to admit fresh water to the imprisoned embryo during the later stages of development; when development is complete escape is made through the end of the shell. In the rays or " skates," long spines take the place of tendrils, the egg simply resting at the bottom of the sea. The empty egg-cases of the rays are often found on the seashore, and are known as "Mermaids' purses." The egg of the Port Jackson shark (Cestracion) is of enormous size, pear-shaped, and provided with a spiral flange extending along the whole length of the capsule. In the Chimaera the egg is long, more or less spindle-shaped, and produced on each side into a broad flange having a fringed edge, so that the whole bears a close resemblance to a long leaf, broad and notched at one end, pointed at the other. This likeness to the seaweed among which it rests is doubtless a protective device, akin to that of protectively coloured birds' eggs. Among the bony fishes the eggs generally take the form of small spheres, enclosed within a tough membrane or capsule. But they present many important differences, being in some fishes heavy and remaining at the bottom of the water, in other light and floating on the surface. While in some species they are distributed separately, in others they adhere together in masses. The eggs of the salmon, for example, are heavy, hard and smooth, and deposited separately in a trough dug by the parent and afterwards covered to prevent them from being carried away by the stream. In the perch they are adhesive and form long band- like masses of spawn adhering to water-plants. In the gobies the egg is spindle-shaped, and attached by one end by means of a network of fibres, resembling rootlets; while in the smelt the egg is loosely suspended by a membrane formed by the peeling ofl of a part of the outer sheath of the capsule. The eggs of the garfish (Belone vulgaris) and of the flying-fish of the genus Exocoetus, attach themselves to foreign objects, or to one another, by means of threads or cords developed at opposite poles of the egg. Among a number of fishes the eggs float at the surface of the sea, often in enormous masses, when they are carried about at the mercy of tides and currents. An idea of the size which such i6 EGGENBERG masses attain may be gathered from the fact that the spaw, of the angler-fish, Lophius piscatorius, takes the form of a shee from 2 to 3 ft. wide, and 30 ft. long. Another remarkable featur of these floating eggs is their transparency, inasmuch as they ar extremely difficult to see, and hence they probably escape th rapacious maws of spawn-eating animals. The cod tribe am flat-fishes lay floating eggs of this description. The maximum number of eggs laid by fishes varies greatly some species laying relatively few, others an enormous number But in all cases the number increases with the weight and age o the fish. Thus it has been calculated that the number laid by th salmon is roughly about 1000 to every pound weight of the fish a 15 ft salmon laying 15,000 eggs. The sturgeon lays abou 7,000,000; the herring 50,000; the turbot 14,311,000; the sole 134,000; the perch 280,000. Briefly, the number is greates where the risks of destruction are greatest. The eggs of the degenerate fishes known as the lampreys am hag-fishes are remarkable for the fact that in the latter they are large in size, cylindrical in shape, and provided at each end with booklets whereby they adhere one to another; while in the lampreys they are extremely small and embedded in a jelly Molluscs. — Among the Mollusca, Crustacea and Insecta yolk stored eggs of very remarkable forms are commonly produced In variety, in this connexion, the Mollusca must perhaps be given the first place. This diversity, indeed, is strikingly illus- trated by the eggs of the Cephalopoda. In the squids (Loligo), for example, the eggs are enclosed in long cylindrical cases, oi which there are several hundreds, attached by one end to a common centre; the whole series looking strangely like a rough mop-head. Each case, in such a cluster, contains about 250 eggs, or about 40,000 in all. By way of contrast the eggs of the true cuttle-fish (Sepia) are deposited separately, each enclosed in a tough, black, pear-shaped capsule which is fastened by a stalk to fronds of sea-weed or other object. They appear to be extruded at short intervals, till the full complement is laid, the whole forming a cluster looking like a bunch of grapes. The octopus differs yet again in this matter, its eggs being very small, berry- like, and attached to a stalk which runs through the centre of the mass. The eggs of the univalve Mollusca are hardly less varied in the shapes they take. In the common British Purpura lapillus they resemble delicate pink grains of rice set on stalks; in Busy con they are disk-shaped, and attached to a band nearly 3 ft. long. The eggs of the shell-bearing slugs ( Testacella) are large, and have the outer coat so elastic that if dropped on a stone floor they will rebound several inches; while some of the snails (Bulimus) lay eggs having a white calcareous and slightly iridescent shell, in size and shape closely resembling the egg of the pigeon. Some are even larger than the egg of the wood-pigeon. The beautiful violet-snail (lanthina) — a marine species — carries its eggs on the under side of a gelatinous raft. No less remarkable are the eggs of the whelk; since, like those of the squids, they are not laid separately but enveloped in capsules, and these to the number of many hundreds form the large, ball-like masses so commonly met with on the seashore. When the eggs in these capsules hatch, the crowd of embryos proceed to establish an internecine warfare, devouring one another till only the strongest survives ! With the Mollusca, as with other groups of animals, where the eggs are exposed to great risks they are small, produced in great numbers, and give rise to larvae. This is well illustrated by the common oyster which annually disperses about 60,000,000 eggs. But where the risk of destruction is slight, the eggs are large and produce young differing from the parent only in size, as in the case of the pigeon-like eggs of Bulimus. Crustaceans. — Among the higher Crustacea, as a rule, the eggs are carried by the female, attached to special appendages on the under side of the body. But in some — Squillas — they are de- posited in burrows. Generally they are relatively small so that the young which emerge therefrom differ markedly in appearance from the parents, but in deep-sea and freshwater species the eggs are large, when the young, on emerging, differ but little from the adults in appearance. Insects, &c— The eggs of insects though minute, are also remarkable for the great variety of form which they present, while they are frequently objects of great beauty owing to the sculptured markings of the shell. They are generally laid in clusters, either on the ground, on the leaves of plants, or in the water. Some of the gnats (Culex) lay them on the water Cylindrical in shape they are packed closely together, set on end, the whole mass forming a kind of floating raft. Frequently, as in the case of the stick and leaf insect, the eggs are enclosed in capsules of very elaborate shapes and highly ornamented. As to the rest of the Invertebrata — above the Protozoa the eggs are laid in water, or in damp places. In the former case they are as a rule small, and give rise to larvae; while eggs hatched on land are sometimes enclosed in capsules, " cocoons," as in the case of the earthworm, where this capsule is filled with a milky white fluid, of a highly nutritious character, on which the embryos feed. Among some invertebrates two different kinds of eggs are laid by the same individual. The water-flea, Daphnia (a crustacean) , lays two kinds of eggs known as " summer " and " winter " eggs. The summer eggs are carried by the female in a " brood-pouch " on the back. The " winter " eggs, produced at the approach of winter, differ markedly in appearance from the summer eggs, being larger, darker in colour, thicker shelled, and enclosed in a capsule formed from the shell or carapace, of the parent's body. " Winter eggs," however, may be produced in the height of summer. While the " summer eggs " are unfertilized, the winter eggs are fertilized by the male, and possess the remarkable power of lying dormant for months or even years before they develop. The production of these two kinds of eggs is a device to overcame the cold of winter, or the drying up of the pools in which the species lives, during the heat of the summer. The power of resistance which such eggs possess may be seen in the fact that a sample of mud which had been kept dry for ten years still con- tained living eggs. In deep water where neither drought nor winter cold can seriously affect the Daphnias, they propagate all the year round by unfertilized " summer " eggs. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For further details on this subject the following authors should be consulted -.—Mammals : F. E. Beddard, "Re- marks on the Ovary of Echidna," Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc Edin vol. viii. (1885); W. H. Caldwell, "The Embryology of Monotre- mata and Marsupialia," Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. vol. 178 (1887); E. B. Poulton, " The Structures connected with the Ovarian Ovum of the Marsupialia and Monotremata," Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci. vol. xxiv. (1884). Birds, Systematic:— H. Seebohm, Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British Birds (1896); A. Newton, Oolheca Wooleyana (1907); E. Gates, Cat. Birds' Eggs Brit. Mus. (appearing), vols. i.-iv. published. General: — A. Newton, Dictionary of Birds (1896). Colouring matter: — Newbegin, Colour in Nature (1898). Reptiles and Amphibia:— R. Gadow, " Reptiles," Camb. Nat. Hist. (1901); G. A. Boulenger, "The Tailless Batrachians of iurope," Ray Soc. (1896). Fishes: — Bridgeand Boulenger, "Fishes, Ascidians, &c.," Camb. Nat. Hist. (1904) ; B. Dean, Fishes Living and Fossil (1895); J. T. Cunningham, Marketable Marine Fishes (1896). Invertebrate:— G. H Carpenter, Insects. Their Structure and Life (1899); L. C. Miall, A History of Aquatic Insects (1895); T. R. R. btebbmg, Crustacea, Internat. Sci. series (1893); M. C. Cooke, 'Mollusca," Camb. Nat. Hist. (1906). For further references to the above and other Invertebrate groups see various text-books on Entomology, Zoology. (W. P. P.) EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON, PRINCE (1568-1634), Austrian statesman, was a son of Siegfried von Eggenberg (d. IS94), and began life as a soldier in the Spanish service, becoming about 1596 a trusted servant of the archduke of Styria, after- wards the emperor Ferdinand II. Having become a Roman Catholic, he was soon the chancellor and chief adviser of rerdinand, whose election as emperor he helped to secure in 1619. le^ directed the imperial policy during the earlier part of the iTiirty Years' War, and was in general a friend and supporter of Wallenstein, and an opponent of Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, nd of Spain. He was largely responsible for Wallenstein's eturn to the imperial service early in 1632, and retired from >ublic life just after the general's murder in February 1634, dying EGGER— EGLINTON, EARLS OF 17 at Laibach. on the tSih of October 1634. Eggenberg's influence with Ferdinand was so marked that it was commonly said iliai Austria rested upon three hills (Berge): Eggenberg, Questenberg and Werdenberg. He was richly rewarded for his services to the emperor. Having received many valuable estates in Bohemia and elsewhere, he was made a prince of the Empire in 1623, and duke of Krumau in 1625. See H. von Zwiedineck-Siidenhorst, Hans Ulrich, Fiirsl von Euf***'t (Vienna. 1880); and F. Mares, Beitrdte sur Ceschichte in Bnukuntrn des Fursten J. U. von Eggenbert ** Kaiser Ferdinand 11. umi ra Wtttdslei* (Prague. 1893). EGGER. EMILE (1813-1835), French scholar, was born in Paris on the iSth of July 1813. From 1840 till 1855 he was assistant professor, and from 1855 till his death professor of Greek literature in the Facult£ des Lettres at Paris University. In 1 854 he was elected a member of the Academic des Inscriptions and in 1873 of theConseilsupe'rieurdcl'instructionpubliquc. He was a voluminous writer, a sound and discerning scholar, and his influence was largely responsible for the revival of the study of classical philology in France. His most important works were Essai sur I'histoire de la critique ekes Us Grecs (1849), Notions tUmeniaires de grammaire comparte (1852), Apollonius Dyscole, essai sur I'histoire des theories grafnmaticales dans I' antiquitt (1854) , Uf moires de I literature ancienne (1862), Memoir es dhistoire antifHHf el de phiiologie (1863), Les Papyrus grecs du Music du Louvre et de la Bibliotkeque Imperial (1865), Etudes sur les IraiUs publics ckex les Grecs et les Remains (1866), L'HelUnisme en France (1869), La Litterature grecque (1890). He was also the author of Observations et reflexions sur le dtveloppement de I'in- leUigence et du langage ckex les en/ants (1879). Egger died in Paris on the ist of September 1885. EGG LESION, EDWARD (1837-1002), American novelist and historian, was born in Vevay, Indiana, on the loth of December 1837, of Virginia stock. Delicate health, by which he was more or less handicapped throughout his life, prevented his going to college, but he was naturally a diligent student. He was a Methodist circuit rider and pastor in Indiana and Minnesota (1857-1866); associate editor (1866-1867) of The Little Corporal, Chicago; editor of The National Sunday School Teacher, Chicago (1867-1870); literary editor and later editor-in-chief of The Independent, New York (1870-1871); and editor of Hearth and Home in 1871-1872. He was pastor of the church of Christian Endeavour, Brooklyn, in 1874-1879. From 1880 until his death on the 2nd of September 1002, at his home on Lake George, New York, he devoted himself to literary work. His fiction includes Mr Blake's Walking Stick (1869), for children; The Hoosier Schoolmaster (1871); The End of the World (1872); The Mystery of MeiropolismUe (1873); The Circuit Rider (1874); Roxy (1878); The Hoosier Schoolboy (1883); The Book of Queer Stories (1884), for children; The Graysons (1888), an excellent novel; The Faith Doctor (1891); and Duffels (1893), short stories. Most of his stories portray the pioneer manners and dialect of the Central West, and the Hoosier Schoolmaster was one of the first examples of American local realistic fiction; it was very popular, and was translated into French, German and Danish. During the last third of his life Eggleston laboured on a History of Life in the United States, but he lived to finish only two volumes — The Beginners of a Nation (1896) and The Transit of Civilization (1000). In addition he wrote several popular compendiums of American history for schools and homes. SerG. C. Eggleston, The Pint of the Hoosiers (Philadelphia, 1903), and Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (1900). His brother GEORGE CAEY EGGLESTON (1839- ), American journalist and author, served in the Confederate army; was managing editor and later editor-in-chief of Hearth and Home (1871-1874); was literary editor of the New York Evening Post (1875-1881), literary editor and afterwards editor-in-chief of the New York Commercial Advertiser (1884-1889), and editorial writer for The World (New York) from 1889 to 1000. Most of his books are stories for boys; others, and his best, are romances dealing with life in the South especially in the Virginias and the Carolinas — before and during the Civil War. Among his publi- cations may be mentioned: A Rebel's Recollections (1874); The Last of the Flatboats ( i 900) ; Camp Venture ( 1 900) ; A Carolina Cavalier (1901); Dorothy South (1002); The Master of Warlock (1903) ; Evelyn Byrd (1904)1/1 Daughter of the South (1905); Blind Alleys (1906) ; Love is Ike Sum of it all (1907) ; History of the Con- federate War (1910); and Recollections of a Varied Life (1910). EGHAM, a town in the Chertsey parliamentary division of Surrey, England, on the Thames, 21 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 11,895. The church of St John the Baptist is a reconstruction of 1817; it contains monuments by John Flaxman. Above the right bank of the river a low elevation, Cooper's Hill, commands fine views over the valley, and over Windsor Great Park to the west. On the hill was the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, commonly called Cooper's Hill College, of which Sir George Tomkyns Chesney was the originator and first president (1871). It educated men for the public works, accounts, railways and telegraph departments of India, and included a school of forestry ; but it was decided, in the face of some opposition, to close it in 1906, on the theory that it was unnecessary for a college with such a specialized object to be maintained by the government, in view of the readiness with which servants for these departments could be recruited elsewhere. Part of the organization, including the school of forestry, was transferred to Oxford University. Cooper's Hill gives name to a famous poem of Sir John Denham (1642). A large and handsome building houses the Royal Hollo way College for Women (1886), founded by Thomas Holloway; in the neighbourhood is the sanatorium of the same founder (1885) for the treatment of mental ailments, accommo- dating about 250 patients. The college for women, surrounded by extensive grounds, commands a wide view from the wooded slope on which it stands. The recreation hall, with its fine art collec- tion, is the most notable room in this handsome building, which can receive 250 students. Within the parish, bordering the river, is the field of Runnymede, which, with Magna Charta Island lying off it, is famous in connexion with the signature of the charter by King John. Virginia Water, a large and picturesque artificial lake to the south of Windsor Great Park, is much frequented by visitors. It was formed under the direction of the duke of Cumberland, about 1750, and was the work of the brothers Thomas and Paul Sandby. EGIN (Armenian Agn, " the spring "), an important town in the Mamuret el-Aziz vilayet of Asiatic Turkey (altitude 3300 ft.). Pop. about 20,000, fairly equally divided between Armenian Christians and Moslems. It is picturesquely situated in a theatre of lofty, abrupt rocks, on the right bank of the western Euphrates, which is crossed by a wooden bridge. The stone houses stand in terraced gardens and orchards, and the streets are mere rock ladders. Egin was settled by Armenians who emigrated from Van in the nth century with Senekherim. On the 8th of November 1895 and in the summer of 1896 many Armenians were massacred here. (D. G. H.) EGLANTINE (E. Frisian, egelliere; Fr. aiglantier), a plant- name of which Dr R. C. A. Prior (Popular Names of British Plants, p. 70) says that it " has been the subject of much dis- cussion, both as to its exact meaning and as to the shrub to which it properly belongs." The eglantine of the herbalists was the sweet-brier, Rosa rubiginosa. The signification of the word seems to be thorn-tree or thorn-bush, the first two syllables probably representing the Anglo-Saxon egla, egle, a prick or thorn, while the termination is the Dutch tere, taere, a tree. Eglantine is frequently alluded to in the writings of English poets, from Chaucer downwards. Milton, in L' Allegro, is thought by the term " twisted eglantine " to denote the honeysuckle, Lonicera Peridymenum, which is still known as eglantine in north-east Yorkshire. EGLINTON, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Eglinton has been held by the famous Scottish family of Montgomerie since 1508. The attempts made to trace the descent of this house to Roger of Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1094), one of William the Conqueror's followers, will not bear examination, and the sure jedigree of the family only begins with Sir John Montgomerie, lord of Eaglesham, who fought at the battle of Otterbourne in i8 EGMONT, EARLS OF 1388 and died about 1398. His grandson, Sir Alexander Mont- gomerie (d. c. 1460), was made a lord of the Scottish parliament about 1445 as Lord Montgomerie, and Sir Alexander's great- grandson Hugh, the 3rd lord (c. 1460-1545), was created earl of Eglinton, or Eglintoun, in 1508. Hugh, who was a person of importance during the minority of James V., was succeeded by his grandson Hugh (d. 1546), and then by the latter's son Hugh (c. 1 53 i-i 585) , who became 3rd earl of Eglinton. This nobleman was a firm supporter of Mary queen of Scots, for whom he fought at Langside, and of the Roman Catholic Church; his son and successor,Hugh,was murdered inAprili586 by the Cunninghams, a family with which his own had an hereditary blood feud. In 1612, by the death of Hugh, the sth earl, the male line of the Montgomeries became extinct. Having no children Earl Hugh had settled his title and estates on his cousin, Sir Alexander Seton of Foulstruther (1588-1661), a younger son of Robert Seton, ist earl of Wintoun (c. 1550-1603), and his wife Margaret, daughter of the 3rd earl of Eglinton. Alexander, who thus became the 6th earl of Eglinton and took the name of Montgomerie, was commonly called Greysteel ; he was a prominent Covenanter and fought against Charles I. at Marston Moor. Later, however, he supported the cause of Charles II., and fell into the hands of Cromwell, who imprisoned him. His fifth son, Robert Montgomerie (d. 1684) , a soldier of distinction, fought against Cromwell at Dunbar and at Worcester, afterwards escaping from the Tower of London and serving in Denmark. Robert's elder brother, Hugh, 7th earl of Eglinton (1613-1669), who also fought against Cromwell, was the grandfather of Alexander, the 9th earl (c. 1660-1729), who married, for his third wife, Susannah (1689-1780), daughter of Sir Archibald Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a lady celebrated for her wit and beauty. Alexander, the loth earl (1723-1769), a son of the 9th earl, was one of the first of the Scottish landowners to carry out improve- ments on his estates. He was shot near Ardrossan by an excise officer named Mungo Campbell on the 24th of October 1769. His brother and successor, Archibald, the nth earl (1726-1796), raised a regiment of Highlanders with which he served in America during the Seven Years' War. As he left no male issue he was succeeded in the earldom by his kinsman Hugh Montgomerie (1739-1819), a descendant of the 6th earl, who was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Ardrossan in 1806. Before succeeding to the earldom Hugh had served in the American war and had been a member of parliament ; after this event he began to rebuild Eglinton castle on a magnificent scale and to construct a harbour at Ardrossan. This earl's successor was his grandson, Archibald William, the i3th earl (1812-1861), who was born at Palermo in the 29th of September 1812. His father was Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773-1814), the eldest son of the i2th earl, and his mother was Mary (d. 1848), a daughter of the nth earl. Educated at Eton, the young earl's main object of interest for some years was the turf; he kept a large racing stud and won success and reputation in the sporting world. In 1839 his name became more widely known in connexion with the famous tournament which took place at Eglinton castle and is said to have cost him £30,000 or £40,000. This was made the subject of much ridicule and was partly spoiled by the unfavourable weather, the rain falling in torrents. Yet it was a real tournament and the " knights " broke their spears in the orthodox way. Prince Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.) took part in it, and Lady Seymour, a daughter of Thomas Sheridan and the wife of Lord Seymour, afterwards 1 2th duke of Somerset, was the queen of beauty. A list *of the challengers with an account of the jousts and the melee will be found in the volume on the tournament written by John Richardson, with drawings by J. H. Nixon. It is also described by Disraeli in Endymion. Eglinton was a staunch Tory, and in February 1852 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under the earl of Derby. He retired with the ministry in the following December, having by his princely hospitality made himself one of the most popular of Irish viceroys. When Derby returned to office in February 1858 he was again appointed lord-lieutenant, and he discharged the duties of this post until June 1859. In this year he was created earl of Winton, an earldom which had been held by his kinsfolk, the Setons, from 1600 until 1716, when George Seton, the 5th earl (c. 1678-1749), was deprived of his honours for high treason. The earl died on the 4th of October 1 86 1, and was succeeded by his eldest son Archibald William (1841-1892). When this earl died in 1892 his younger brother George Arnulph (b. 1848) became I5th earl of Eglinton and 3rd earl of Winton. See Sir W. Fraser, Memorials of the Montgomeries, earls of Eglinton (i859)- EGMONT, EARLS OF. John Perceval, ist earl of Egmont (1683-1748), Irish politician, and partner with J. E. Oglethorpe in founding the American colony of Georgia, was created earl in 1733. He claimed descent from the Egmonts of Flanders, but his title was taken from the place in County Cork where the family residence stood. Its name of Burton House, and that of Burton manor which formed part of the family estates, were a reminiscence of Burton in Somerset, where was the earlier English family property of his great-great-grandfather Richard Perceval (1550-1620), Burghley's secret agent, and author of a Spanish dictionary published in 1591, whose son Sir Philip Perceval (1605-1647) acquired the Irish estates by judicious use of his opportunities as commissioner for land titles and of his interest at court. Sir Philip's son John, grandfather of the ist earl, was made a baronet in 1661. The first earl of Egmont (who had been made Baron Perceval in 1715, and Viscount Perceval in 1723) is chiefly important for his connexion with the colonization of Georgia, and for his voluminous letters and writings on biography and genealogy. John Perceval, 2nd earl of Egmont (1711-1770), his eldest son, was an active politician, first lord of the admiralty (1763- 1766), and political pamphleteer, and like his father an ardent genealogist. He was twice married, and had eight sons and eight daughters. One of his younger sons was Spencer Perceval, prime minister of England. His eldest son succeeded as 3rd earl, and the eldest by his second marriage (with Catherine Compton, baroness of Arden in Ireland) was in 1802 created Baron Arden of the United Kingdom, a title which subsequently became merged in the Egmont earldom. EGMONT (EGMOND), LAMORAL, COUNT OF, prince of Gavre (1522-1568), was born in Hainaut in 1522. He was the younger of the two sons of John IV., count of Egmont, by his wife Francoise of Luxemburg, princess of Gavre. On the death of his elder brother Charles, about 1541, he succeeded to his titles and estates. In this year he served his apprenticeship as a soldier in the expedition of the emperor Charles V. to Algiers, distinguishing himself in the command of a body of cavalry. In 1544 he married Sabina, sister of the elector palatine Frederick HI., and the wedding was celebrated at Spires with great pomp in the presence of the emperor and his brother Ferdi- nand, afterwards emperor. Created knight of the Golden Fleece in 1546, he accompanied Philip of Spain in his tour through the Netherland towns, and in 1554 he went to England at the head of a special embassy to ask the hand of Mary of England for Philip, and was afterwards present at the wedding ceremony at Winchester. In the summer of 1557 Egmont was appointed commander of the Flemish cavalry in the war between Spain and France; and it was by his vehement persuasion that the battle of St Quentin was fought. The victory was determined by the brilliant charge that he led against the French. -The reputation which he won at St Quentin was raised still higher in 1558, when he encountered the French army under de Thermes at Gravelines, on its march homewards after the invasion of Flanders, totally defeated it, and took Marshal de Thermes prisoner. The battle was fought against the advice of the duke of Alva, and the victory made Alva Egmont's enemy. But the count now became the idol of his countrymen, who looked upon him as the saviour of Flanders from the devastations of the French. He was nominated by Philip stadtholder of Flanders and Artois. At the conclusion of the war by the treaty of Cateau Cambr6sis, Egmont was one of the four hostages selected by the king of France as pledges for its execution. EGOISM The attempt made by King Philip to convert the Netherlands into a Spanish dependency and to govern it by Spanish ministers excited the resentment of Egmont and other leading members of the Netherlands aristocracy. Between him and Cardinal GranveUa, the all-powerful minister of the regent Margaret of Parma, there was no love lost. As a member of the council of state Egmont joined the prince of Orange in a vigorous protest addressed to Philip (1561) against the autocratic proceedings of the minister; and two years later he again protested in conjunction with the prince of Orange and Count Horn. In the spring of 1 564 Granvella left the Netherlands, and the malcontent nobles once more took their places in the council of state. The resolve, however, of Philip to enforce the decrees of the council of Trent throughout the Netherlands once more aroused their resentment. Although himself a good Catholic, Egmont had no wish to see the Spanish Inquisition established in his native country. Orange, Egmont and others were convinced that the enforcement of the decrees in the Netherlands was impossible, and, in January 1665, Egmont accepted a special mission to Spain to make known to Philip the state of affairs and the disposition of the people. At Madrid the king gave him an ostentatiously cordial reception, and all the courtiers vied with one another in lavishing professions of respect upon him. They knew his vain and somewhat unstable character, and hoped to win him over without conceding anything to the wishes of the Netherlanders. The king gave him plenty of flatteries and promises, but steadily evaded any serious discussion of the object of his mission, and Egmont finally returned home without having accomplished anything. At the same time Philip sent further instructions to the regent to abate nothing of the severity of the persecution. Egmont was naturally indignant at the treatment he had received, while the terrors of the Inquisition were steadily rousing the people to a state of frenzied excitement. In 1566 a confederacy of the lesser nobility was formed (Les Gueux) whose principles were set out in a document known as the Compromise. From this league Egmont held aloof; he declined to take any step savouring of actual disloyalty to his sovereign. He withdrew to his government of Flanders, and as stadtholder took active measures for the persecution of heretics. But in the eyes of Philip he had long been a marked man. The Spanish king had temporized only until the moment arrived when he could crush opposition by force. In the summer of 1567 the duke of Alva was despatched to the Netherlands at the head of an army of veterans to supersede the regent Margaret and restore order in the discontented provinces. Orange fled to Germany after having vainly warned Egmont and Horn of the dangers that threatened them. Alva was at pains to lull their suspicions, and then suddenly seized them both and threw them in the castle of Ghent. Their trial was a farce, for their fate had already been determined before Alva left Spain. After some months of imprisonment they were removed to Brussels, where sentence was pronounced upon them (June 4) by the infamous Council of Blood erected by Alva. They were condemned to death for high treason. It was in vain that the most earnest intercessions were made in behalf of Egmont by the emperor Maiimilian, by the knights of the order of the Golden Fleece, by the states of Brabant, and by several of the German princes. Vain, too, was the pathetic pleading of his wife, who with her eleven children was reduced to want, and had taken refuge in a convent. Egmont was beheaded at Brussels in the square before the town hall on the day after his sentence had been publicly pronounced (June 5, 1568). He met his fate with calm resignation; and in the storm of terror and exasperation to which this tragedy gave rise Egmont's failings were forgotten, and he and his fellow-victim to Spanish tyranny were glorified in the popular imagination as martyrs of Flemish freedom. From this memorable event, which Goethe made the theme of his play Egmont (1788). is usually dated the beginning of the famous revolt of the Netherlands. In 1865 a monument to Counts Egmont and Horn, by Fraiken, was erected on the spot where they were beheaded. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— T. Juste, Le Comte d' Egmont et le comte de Homes (Brussels, 1862), Lei Pays-Bos sous Philippe II, 1555-1565 (2 vote., Brussels, 1855); J. L. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic, 1555-1*84 (3 vols., London, 1856); J. P. Blplc, History of the People of ' the Netherlands (tr. from Dutch), vol. iii. (New York, 1900); R. Fruin, Ilet voorspel van den tastifjarigen oorlag (Amsterdam, 1866); E. Marx, Studien zur Geschichte des ntederldndischen Aufstandes (Leipzig, 1902). (G. E.) EGOISM (from Gr. and Lat. ego, I, the ist personal pronoun), a modern philosophical term used generally, in opposition to " Altruism," for any ethical system in which the happiness or the good of the individual is the m.iin criterion of moral action. Another form of the word, " Egotism," is really interchangeable, though in ordinary language it is often used specially (and similarly " egoism," as in George Meredith's Egoist) to describe . the habit of magnifying one's self and one's achievements, or regarding all things from a selfish point of view. Both these ideas derive from the original meaning of ego, myself, as opposed to everything which is outside myself. This antithesis of ego and non-ego, self and not-self, may be understood in several senses according to the connexion in which it is used. Thus the self may be held to include one's family, property, business, and an indefinitely wider range of persons or objects in which the individual's interest is for the moment centred, i.e. everything which I can call " mine." In this, its widest, sense " a man's Self is the sum total of all that he can call his " ( Wm. James, Principles of Psychology, chap x.). This self may be divided up in many ways according to the various forms in which it may be expressed. Thus James (ibid.) classifies the various " selves " as the material, the spiritual, the social and the " pure." Or again the self may be narrowed down to a man's own person, consisting of an individual mind and body. In the true philosophical sense, however, the conception of the ego is still further narrowed down to the individual consciousness as opposed to all that is outside it, i.e. can be its object. This conception of the self belongs mainly to metaphysics and involves the whole problem of the relation between subject and object, the nature of reality, and the possibility of knowledge of self and of object. The ordinary idea of the self as a physical entity, obviously separate from others, takes no account of the problem as to how and in what sense the individual is conscious of himself; what is the relation between subject and object in the phenomenon of self-conscious- ness, in which the mind reflects upon itself both past and present ? The mind is in this case both subject and object, or, as William James puts it, both " I " and " me." The phenomenon has been described in various ways by different thinkers. Thus Kant distinguished the two selves as rational and empirical, just as he distinguished the two egos as the noumenal or real and the phenomenal from the metaphysical standpoint. A similar distinction is made by Herbart. Others have held that the self has a complex content, the subject self being, as it were, a fuller expression of the object -self (so Bradley); or again the subject self is the active content of the mind, and the object self the passive content which for the moment is exciting the attention. The most satisfactory and also the most general view is that consciousness is complex and unanalysable. The relation of the self to the not -self need not to be treated here (see METAPHYSICS). It may, however, be pointed out that in so far as an object is cognized by the mind, it becomes in a sense part of the complex self-content. In this sense the individual is in himself his own universe, his whole existence being, in other words, .the sum total of his psychic relations, and nothing else being for him in existence at all. A similar idea is prominent in many philosophico-religious systems wherein the idea of God or the Infinite is, as it were, the union of the ego and the non-ego, of subject and object. The self of man is regarded as having limitations, whereas the Godhead is infinite and all-inclusive. In many mystical Oriental religions the perfection of the human self is absorption in the infinite, as a ripple dies away on the surface of water. The problems of the self may be summed up as follows. The psychologist investigates the ideal construction of the self, i.e. the way in which the conception of the self arises, the different aspects or contents of the self and the relation of 20 EGORIEVSK— EGRESS the subject to the object self. At this point the epistemologist takes up the question of empirical knowledge and considers the kind of validity, if any, which it can possess. What existence has the known object for the knowing subject ? The result of this inquiry is generally intellectual scepticism in a greater or less degree, namely, that the object has no existence for the knower except a relative one, i.e. in so far as it is " known " (see RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE). Finally the metaphysician, and in another sphere the theologian, consider the nature of the pure or transcendental self apart from its relations, i.e. the absolute self. In ethics, egoistic doctrines disregard the ultimate problems of selfhood, and assume the self to consist of a man's person and those things in which he is or ought to be directly interested. The general statement that such doctrines refer all moral action to criteria of the individual's happiness, preservation, moral per- fection, raises an obvious difficulty. Egoism merely asserts that the self is all-important in the application of moral principles, and does not in any way supply the material of these principles. It is a purely formal direction, and as such merely an adjunct to a substantive ethical criterion. A practical theory of ethics seeks to establish a particular moral ideal; if it is an absolute criterion, then the altruist would place first the attainment of that ideal by others, while the egoist would seek it for himself. The same is true of ethical theories which may be described as material. Of the second type are those, e.g. of Hobbes and Spinoza, which advocate self-preservation as the ideal, as con- trasted with modern evolutionist moralists who advocate race- preservation. Again, we may contrast the early Greek hedonists, who bade each man seek the greatest happiness (of whatever kind), with modern utilitarian and social hedonists, who prefer the greatest good or the greatest happiness of the greatest number. It is with hedonistic and other empirical theories that egoism is generally associated. As a matter of fact, however, egoism has been no less prominent in intuitional ethics. Thus the man who seeks only or primarily his own moral perfection is an egoist par excellence. Such are ascetics, hermits and the like, whose whole object is the realization of their highest selves. The distinction of egoistical and altruistic action is further complicated by two facts. In the first place, many systems combine the two. Thus Christian ethics may be said to insist equally on duty to self and duty to others, while crudely egoistic systems become unworkable if a man renders himself obnoxious to his fellows. On the other hand, every deliberate action based on an avowedly altruistic principle necessarily has a reference to the agent; if it is right that A should do a certain action for the benefit of B, then it tends to the moral self-realization of A that he should do it. Upon whatsoever principle the Tightness of an action depends, its performance is right for the agent. The self- reference is inevitable in every action in so far as it is regarded as voluntary and chosen as being of a particular moral quality. It is this latter fact which has led many students of human character to state that men do in fact aim at the gratification of their personal desires and impulses. The laws of the state and the various rules of conduct laid down by religion or morality are merely devices adopted for general convenience. The most remarkable statement of this point of view is that of Friedrich Nietzsche, who went so far as to denounce all forms of self-denial as cowardice: — let every one who is strong seek to make himself dominant at the expense of the weak. EGORIEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan, 70 m. by rail E.S.E. of Moscow, by a branch line (15 m.) connect- ing with the Moscow to Ryazan main line. The cotton mills and other factories give occupation to 6000 persons. Egorievsk has important fairs for grain, hides, &c., which are exported. Pop. (1897) 23,932. EGREMONT, EARLS OF. In 1749 Algernon Seymour, 7th duke of Somerset, was created earl of Egremont, and on his childless death in February 1730 this title passed by special remainder to his nephew, Sir Charles Wyndham or Windham, Bart. (1710-1763), a son of Sir William Wyndham of Orchard Wyndham, Somerset. Charles, who had succeeded to his father's baronetcy in 1740, inherited Somerset's estates in Cumberland and Sussex. He was a member of parliament from 1734 to 1750, and in October 1761 he was appointed secretary of state for the southern department in succession to William Pitt. His term of office, during which he acted in concert with his brother-in-law, George Grertville, was mainly occupied with the declaration of war on Spain and with the negotiations for peace with France and Spain, a peace the terms of which the earl seems to have disliked. He was also to the fore during the proceedings against Wilkes, and he died on the 2ist of August 1763. Horace Walpole perhaps rates Egremont's talents too low when he says he " had neither knowledge of business, nor the smallest share of parliamentary abilities." The and earl's son and successor, George O'Brien Wyndham (1751-1837), was more famous as a patron of art and an agricul- turist than as a politician, although he was not entirely indifferent to politics. For some time the painter Turner lived at his Sussex residence, Petworth House, and in addition to Turner, the painter Leslie, the sculptor Flaxman and other talented artists received commissions from Egremont, who filled his house with valuable works of art. Generous and hospitable, blunt and eccentric, the earl was in his day a very prominent figure in English society. Charles Greville says, " he was immensely rich and his munificence was equal to his wealth "; and again that in his time Petworth was " like a great inn." The earl died un- married on the nth of November 1837, and on the death of his nephew and successor, George Francis Wyndham, the 4th earl (1785-1845), the earldom of Egremont became extinct. Petworth, however, and the large estates had already passed to George Wyndham (1787-1869), a natural son of the 3rd earl, who was created Baron Leconfield in 1859. EGREMONT, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary division of Cumberland, England, 5 m. S.S.E. of Whitehaven, oh a joint line of the London & North Western and Furness railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5761. ' It is pleasantly situated in the valley of the Ehen. Ruins of a castle command the town from an eminence. It was founded c. 1120 by William de Meschines; it is moated, and retains a Norman doorway and some of the original masonry, as well as fragments of later date. The church of St Mary is a modern reconstruction em- bodying some of the Norman features of the old church. Iron ore and limestone are raised in the neighbourhood. It seems impossible to find any history for Egremont until after the Norman Conquest, when Henry I. gave the barony of Coupland to William de Meschines, who erected a castle at Egremont around which the town grew into importance. The barony afterwards passed by marriage to the families of Lucy and Multon, and finally came to the Percys, earls of Northumber- land, from whom are descended the present lords of the manor of Egremont. The earliest evidence that Egremont was a borough occurs in a charter, granted by Richard de Lucy in the reign of King John, which gave the burgesses right to choose their reeve, and set out the customs owing to the lord of the manor, among which was that of providing twelve armed men at his castle in the time of war. The borough was represented by two members in the parliament of 1295, but in the following year was disfranchised, on the petition of the burgesses, on account of the expense of sending members. In 1267 Henry III. granted Thomas de Multon a market every Wednesday at Egremont, and a fair every year on the eve, day and morrow of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary. In the Quo Warranlo rolls he is found to have claimed by prescription another weekly market on Saturday. The market rights were purchased from Lord Leconfield in 1885, and the market on Saturday is still held. Richard de Lucy's charter shows that dyeing, weaving and fulling were carried on in the town in his time. EGRESS (Lat. egressus, going out), in astronomy, the end of the apparent transit of a small body over the disk of a larger one; especially of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of that planet. It designates the moment at which the smaller body is seen to leave the limb of the other. MODERN: GEOGRAPHY] EGYPT 21 EGYPT, a country forming the N.E. extremity of Africa.1 In the following account a division is made into (I.) Modern Egypt, and (II.) AiuieiH Egypt; but the history from the earliest times is given as a separate section (III.). Section I. includes Geography, Economics, Government, Inhabi- unt». Finance and Army. Section II. is subdivided into: — (A) : ration and Research: (B) The Country in Ancient Times; Religion: (D) Language and Writing; (E) Art and Archae- ology; (F) Chronology. Section III. is divided into three main pmods:— (i) Ancient History; (a) the Mahommedan Period; (3) Modern History (from Mehemet Ali). I. MODERN EGYPT BftHtdaries ami Artiu. — Egypt is bounded N. by the Mediter- ranean, S. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, N.E. by Palestine, E by the Red Sea, W. by Tripoli and the Sahara. The western frontier is ill-defined. The boundary line between Tripoli and Egypt is usually taken to start from a point in the Gulf of Soil urn and to run S. by E. so as to leave the oasis of Siwa to Egypt. South of Siwa the frontier, according to the Turkish firman of 1841, bends eastward, approaching the cultivated Nile-land near Wadi Haifa, i.e. the southern frontier. This southern frontier is fixed by agreement between Great Britain and Egypt at the 22° N. The N.E. frontier is an almost direct line drawn from Taba, near the head of the Gulf of Akaba, the eastern of the two gulfs into which the Red Sea divides, to the Mediterranean at Rafa in 34° 15' E. The peninsula of Sinai, geographically part of Asia, is thus included in the Egyptian dominions. The total area of the country is about 400,000 sq. m., or more than three times the size of the British Isles. Of this area liths is desert. Canals, roads, date plantations, &c., cover looo sq. m.; 2850 sq. m. are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes, lakes, &c. A line corresponding with the 30° N., drawn just S. of Cairo, divides the country into Lower and Upper Egypt, natural designations in common use, Lower Egypt being the Delta and Upper Egypt the Nile valley. By the Arabs Lower Egypt is called Er-Rif, the cultivated or fertile; Upper Egypt Es Sa'id, the happy or fortunate. Another division of the country is into Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt, Middle Egypt in this classification being the district between Cairo and Assiut. Gmrral Character. — The distinguishing features of Egypt are the Nile and the desert. But for the river there would be, nothing to differentiate the country from other parts of the Sahara. The Nile, however, has transformed the land through which it passes. Piercing the desert, and at its annual overflow depositing rich sediment brought from the Abyssinian highlands, the river has created the Delta and the fertile strip in Upper Egypt. This cultivable land is Egypt proper ; to it alone is applicable the ancient name — " the black land." The Misr of the Arabs is restricted to the same territory. Beyond the Nile valley east and west stretch great deserts, containing here and there fertile oases. The general appearance of the country is remarkably uniform. The Delta is a level plain, richly cultivated, and varied alone by the lofty dark-brown mounds of ancient cities, and the villages set in groves of palm-trees, standing on mounds often, if not always, ancient. Groves of palm-trees are occasionally seen besides those around the villages, but other trees are rare. In Upper Egypt the Nile valley is very narrow and is bounded by mountains of no great height. They form the edge of the desert on either side of the valley, of which the bottom is level rock. The mountains rarely take the form of peaks. Sometimes they approach the river in bold promontories, and at others are divided by the dry beds of ancient ' water- courses. The bright green of the fields, the reddish-brown or dull green of the great river, contrasting with the bare yellow rocks, seen beneath a brilliant sun and a deep-blue sky, present views of great beauty. In form the landscape varies little and is not remarkable; in colour its qualities are always splendid, and under a general uniformity show a continual variety. 1 By the Greek and Roman geographers Egypt was usually assigned to Libya (Africa), but by some early writers the Nile was thought to mark the division between Libya and Asia. The name ocean in Homer as Uyumt, but is of doubtful origin. The Coast Region. — Egypt has a coast-line of over 600 m. on the Mediterranean and about 1200 m. on the Kcd Sea. The Mediter- ranean coast extends from the Gulf of Sollum on the west to Rafa on the cast. From the gulf to the beginning of the Delta the coast is ruck-bound, but slightly indented, and possesses no good harbourage. The cliffs attain in places a height of looo ft. They are the ter- mination of a stony plateau, containing several small oases, which southward joins the more arid and uninhabitable wastes of the Libyan Desert. The Delta coast-line, composed of sandhills and, occasionally, limestone rocks, is low, with cape-like projections at the Nile mouths formed by the river silt. Two bays arc thus formed, the western being the famous Bay of Aboukir. It is bounded W. by a point near the ancient Canopic mouth, eastward by the Rosetta mouth. Beyond the Delta eastward the coast is again barren and without harbours. It rises gradually southward, merging into the plateau of the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea coast is everywhere mountainous. The mountains are the northern continuation of the Abyssinian table-land, and some of the peaks arc over 6000 ft. above the sea. The highest peaks, going from north to south, are Jebels Gharib, Dukhan, Es Shayib, Fatira, Abu Tiur, Zubara and Ham- iii. nl. i 1 1 lain.it .1 1. The coast has a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. trend, and, save for the two gulfs into which it is divided by the massif of Sinai, is not deeply indented. Where the frontier between Egypt and the Sudan reaches the sea is Ras Elba (see further RED SEA). The Nile Valley (see also NILE). — Entering Egypt proper, a little north of the Second Cataract, the Nile flows through a valley in sandstone beds of Cretaceous age as far as 25° N., and throughout this part of its course the valley is extremely narrow, rarely exceed- ing 2 m. in width. At two points, namely, Kalabsha — the valley here being only 170 yds. wide and the river over 100 ft. deep — and Assuan (First Cataract), the course of the river is interrupted by outcrops of granites and other crystalline rocks, which have been uncovered by the erosion of the overlying sandstone, and to-day form the mass of islands, with numerous small rapids, which are described not very accurately as cataracts; no good evidence exists in support of the view that they are the remains of a massive barrier, broken down and carried away by some sudden convulsion. From '25° N. northwards for 518 m. the valley is of the " rift-valley " type, a level depression in a limestone plateau, enclosed usually by steep cliffs, except where the tributary valleys drained into the main valley in early times, when there was a larger rainfall, and now carry off the occasional rainstorms that burst on the desert. The cliffs are highest between Esna and Kena, where they reach 1800 ft. above sea-level. The average width of the cultivated land is about 10 m., of which the greater part lies on the left (western) bank of the river; and outside this is a belt, varying from a few hundred yards to 3 or 4 m., of stony and sandy ground, reaching up to the foot of the limestone cliffs, which rise in places to as much as 1000 ft. above the valley. This continues as far as 29° N., after which the hills that close in the valley become lower, and the higher plateaus lie at a distance of 10 or 15 m. back in the desert. The Fayum. — The fertile province of the Fayum, west of the Nile and separated from it by some 6 m. of desert, seems to owe its exist- ence to movements similar to those which determined the valley itself. Lying in a basin sloping in a series of terraces from an altitude of 65 ft. above sea-level in the east to about 140 ft. below sea-level on the north-west, at the margin of the Birket-el-Kerun, this pro- vince is wholly irrigated by a canalized channel, the Bahr Yusuf, which, leaving the Nile at Derut esh Sherif in Upper Egypt, follows the western margin of the cultivation in the Nile valley, and at length enters the Fayum through a gap in the desert hills by the Xllth Dynasty pyramids of Lahun and Hawara (see FAYUM). The Delta. — About 30° N., where the city of Cairo stands, the hills which have hitherto run parallel with the Nile turn W.N.W. and E.N.E., and the triangular area between them is wholly deltaic. The Delta measures 100 m. from S. to N., having a width of 155 m. on the shore of the Mediterranean between Alexandria on the west and Port Said on the east. The low sandy shore of the Delta, slowly increasing by the annual deposit of silt by the river, is mostly a barren area of sand-hills and salty waste land. This is the region of the lagoons and marshes immediately behind the coast-line. Southwards the quality of the soil rapidly improves, and becomes the most fertile part of Egypt. This area is watered by the Damictta and the Rosetta branches of the Nile, and by a network of canals. The soil of the Delta is a dark grey fine sandy soil, becoming at times almost a stiff clay by reason of the fineness of its particles, which consist almost wholly of extremely small grains of quartz with a few other minerals, and often numerous flakes of mica. This deposit varies in thickness, as a rule, from 55 to 70 ft.; at which depth it is underlain by a series of coarse and fine yellow quartz sands, with occasional pebbles, or even banks of gravel, while here and there thin beds of clay occur. These sand-beds are sharply distinguished by their colour from the overlying Nile deposit, and arc of considerable thickness. A boring made in 1886 for the Royal Society at Zagazig attained a depth o? 375 ft. without reaching rock, and another, subsequently sunk near Lake Aboukir (clone to Alexandria), reached a depth of 405 ft. with the same result. Numerous other borings to depths of loo to 200 ft. have given similar results, showing the Nile deposit to rest generally on these yellow sands, which provide a constant though not a very large supply of good water; near the 22 EGYPT [MODERN : GEOGRAPHY A 3°° northern limits of the Delta this cannot, however, be depended on, since the well water at these depths has proved on several occasions to be salt. The surface of the Delta is a wide alluvial plain sloping gently towards the sea, and having an altitude of 29 ft. above it at its southern extremity. Its limits east and west are determined by the higher ground of the deserts, to which the silt-laden waters of the Nile in flood time cannot reach. This silt consists largely of alumina (about 48%) and calcium carbonate (18%) with smaller quantities of silica, oxide of iron and carbon. Although the Nile water is abundantly charged with alluvium, the annual deposit by the river, except under extraordinary circumstances, is smaller than might be supposed. The mean ordinary rate of the increase of the soil of Egypt is calculated as about 4j in. in a century. The Lakes. — The lagoons or lakes of the Delta, going from west to east, are Mareotis (Mariut), Edku, Burlus and Menzala. The land separating them from the Mediterranean is nowhere more than 10 m. wide. East of the Damietta mouth of the Nile this strip is in places not more than 200 yds. broad. All the lakes are shallow and the water in them salt or brackish. Mareotis, which bounds Alexandria on the south side, varies considerably in area according to the rise or fall of the Nile; when the Nile is low there is a wide expanse of marsh, when at its highest the lake covers about 100 sq. m. In ancient times Mareotis was navigable and was joined by various canals to the Nile. The coun- try around was culti- vated and produced the famous Mareotic wine. The canals being neg- lected, the lake de- creased in size, though it was still of consider- able area in the I5th and 1 6th centuries, and was then noted for the value of its fisheries. When the French army occupied Egypt in 1798, Mareotis was found to be largely a sandy plain. In April 1801 the British army besieging Alexan- dria cut through the land between Aboukir and the lake, admitting the waters of the sea into the ancient bed of Mareotis and laying under water a large area then in cultiva- tion. This precedent was twice imitated, first by the Turks in 1803 and a second time by the British in 1807. Mareotis has no outlet, and the water is kept at a uniform level by means of powerful pumps which neutralize the effect of the Nile flood. A western arm has been cut off from the lake by a dyke, and in this arm a thick crust of salt is formed each year after the evaporation of the flood water. Near the shores of the lake wild flowers grow in rich profusion. Like all the Delta lakes, Mareotis abounds in wild-fowl. North-east of Mareotis was Lake Aboukir, a small sheet of water, now dry, lying S.W. of Aboukir Bay. East of this reclaimed marsh and reaching to within 4 m. of the Rpsetta branch of the Nile, lies Edku, 22 m. long and in places 16 wide, with an opening, supposed to be the ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile, into Aboukir Bay. Burlus begins a little eastward of the Rosetta channel, and stretches bow-shaped for 64 m. Its greatest width is about 16 m. Adjoining it S.E. is an expanse of sandy marsh. Several canals or canalized channels enter the lake. Opposite the spot where the Bahr-mit Yezir enters is an opening into the Mediterranean. Canal and opening indicate the course of the ancient Sebennytic branch of the Nile. Burlus is noted for its water-melons, which are yellow within and come into season after those grown on the banks of the Nile. Menzala greatly exceeds the other Delta lakes in size, covering over 780 sq. m. It extends from very near the Damietta branch of the Nile to Port Said. It receives the waters of the canalized channels which were once the Tanitic, Mendesian and Pelusiac branches. The northern shore is separated from the sea by an extremely narrow strip of land, across which, when the Mediterranean is stormy and the lake full, the waters meet. Its average length is about 40 m., and its average breadth about 15. The depth is greater than that of the other lakes, and the water is salt, though mixed with fresh. It contains a large number of islands, and the whole lake abounds in reeds of various kinds. Of the islands Tennis (anciently Tennesus) MEDfTERRAflE\AN A 3°° 3 Longitude East 31° of Greenwich contains ruins of the Roman period. The lake supports a consider- able population of fishermen, who dwell in villages on the shore and islands and live upon the fish of the lake. The reeds are cover for waterfowl of various kinds, which the traveller sees in great numbers, and wild boars are found in the marshes to the south. The Suez Canal runs in a straight line for 20 in. along the eastern edge of the lake. That part of the lake east of where the canal was excavated is now marshy plain, and the Tanitic and Pelusiac mouths of the Nile are dry. East of Menzala is the site of Serbonis, another dried- up lake, which had the general characteristics of the Delta lagoons. In the Isthmus of Suez are Lake Timsa and the Great and Little Bitter Lakes, occupying part of the ancient bed of the Red Sea. All three were dry or marshy depressions previously to the cutting of the Suez Canal, at which time the waters of the Mediterranean and Red Sea were let into them (see SUEZ CANAL). A chain of natron lakes (seven in number) lies in a valley in the western desert, 70 to 90 m. W.N.W. of Cairo. In the Fayum province farther south is the Birket-el-Kerun, a lake, lying below the level of the Nile, some 30 m. long and 5 wide at its broadest part. Kerun is all that is left of the Lake of Moeris, an ancient artificial sheet of water which played an important part in the irrigation schemes of the Pharaohs. The water of el-Kcrun is brackish, though de- rived from the Nile, which has at all seasons a much higher level. It is bounded on the north by the Libyan Desert, above which rises a bold range of mountains ; and it has a strange and pic- turesque wildness. Near the lake are several sites of ancient towns, and the temple called Kasr- Karun, dating from Roman times, distin- guishes the most im- Eortant of these, outh-west of the Fayum is the Wadi Rayan, a large and deep depression, utiliz- able in modern schemes for re-creating the Lake of Moeris (q.v.). The Desert Plateaus. — From the southern borders of Egypt to the Delta in the north, the desert plateaus ex- tend on either side of the Nile valley. The eastern region, between the Nile and the Red Sea, varies in width from 90 to 350 m. and is known in its northern part as the Arabian Desert. The western region has no natural barrier for many hundreds of miles; it is part of the vast Sahara. On its eastern edge, a few miles west of Cairo, stand the great pyramids (q.v.) of Gizeh or Giza. North of Assuan it is called the Libyan Desert. In the north the desert plateaus are comparatively low, but from Cairo southwards they rise to 1000 and even 1500 ft. above sea- level. Formed mostly of horizontal strata of varying hardness, they present a series of terraces of minor plateaus, rising one above the other, and intersected by small ravines worn by the occasional rain- storms which burst in their neighbourhood. The weathering of this desert area is probably faiily rapid, and the agents at work are principally the rapid heating and cooling of the rocks by day and night, and the erosive action of sand-laden wind on the softer layers; these, aided by the occasional rain, are ceaselessly at work, and produce the successive plateaus, dotted with small isolated hills and cut up by valleys (wadis) which occasionally become deep ravines, thus forming the principal type of scenery of these deserts. From this it will be seen that the desert in Egypt is mainly a rock desert, where the surface is formed of disintegrated rock, the finer particles of which have been carried away by the wind; and east of the Nile this is almost exclusively the case. Here the desert meets the line of mountains which runs parallel to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez. In the western desert, however, those large sand accumu- lations which are usually associated with a desert are met with. They occur as lines of dunes formed of rounded grains of quartz, and lie in the direction of the prevalent wind, usually being of small breadth as compared with their length ; but in certain areas, such as that lying S.W. and W. of the oases of Farafra and Dakhla, these lines of dunes, lying parallel to each other and about half a mile apart, cover immense areas, rendering them absolutely impassable D MODERN: CLIMATE) EGYPT except in a direction parallel to the lines themselves. East of the oases of Bahariu and Varafra is a very striking line of these sand dunes; rarely more than 3 miles wide, it extends almost continu- ously from Moghara in the north, passing alone the west side of .rn Oasu to a point near the Nile in the neighbourhood of Abu Sinibrl — having thus a length of nearly 550 m. In the northern part of this desert the dunes lie about N.\V.-S.I£., but farther south in. line more towards the meridian, becoming at last very nearly north .and south. Oaui. — In the western desert lie the five large oases of Egypt, namely, Siwa, Baharia, Karafra, Dakhla and Kharga or Great Oasis, occupying depressions in the plateau or, in the case of the last three, large indentations in the (ace of limestone escarpments which form the western versant of the Nile valley hills. Their fertility is due to a plentiful supply of water furnished by a sandstone bed 300 to •too ft. below the surface, whence the water rises through natural fissures or artificial boreholes to the surface, and sometimes to several feet above it. These oases were known and occupied by the ti.ms as early as 1600 B.C., and Kharga (q.v.) rose to special importance at the time of the Persian occupation. Here, near the town of Kharga, the ancient llebi, is a temple of Ammon built by Darius I., and in the same oasis arc other ruins of the period of the raies and Caesars. The oasis of Siwa (J upiter Ammon) is about 150 m. S. of the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Sollum and about 300 m. W. of the Nile (see SIWA). The other four oases lie parallel to and distant 100 to 150 m. from the Nile, between 25° and 29° N., liaharia being the most northerly and Kharga the most southerly. Besides the oases the desert is remarkable for two other valleys. The first is that of the natron lakes already mentioned. It contains four monasteries, the remains of the famous anchorite settlement of Nitriae. South of the \Vadi Natron, and parallel to it, is a sterile valley called the Bahr-bcla-Ma, or " River without Water." The Sinai Peninsula. — The triangular-shaped Sinai peninsula has its base on the Mediterranean, the northern part being an arid plateau, the desert of Tih. The apex is occupied by a massif of crys- talline nicks. The principal peaks rise over 8500 ft. Owing to the slight rainfall, and the rapid weathering of the rocks by the great range of temperature, these hills rise steeply from the valleys at their feet as almost bare rock, supporting hardly any vegetation. In some of the valleys wells or rock-pools filled by rain occur, and furnish drinking-water to the few Arabs who wander in these hills (see also SINAI). [Geology. — Just as the Nile valley forms the chief geographical feature of Egypt, so the geology of the country is intimately related to it. The north and south direction of the river has been largely determined by faults, though the geologists of the Egyptian Survey arc finding that the influence of faulting in determining physical outline has, in some cases, been overestimated. The oldest rocks, consisting of crystalline schists with numerous intrusions of granite, porphyry and diorite, occupy the eastern portion of the country between the Nile south of Assuan and the Red Sea. The intrusive rocks predominate over the schists in extent of area covered. They furnished the chief material for the ancient monuments. At Assuan :ie) the well-known syenite of Werner occurs. It is, however, a hornblende granite and does not possess the mineralogical com- position of the syenites of modern petrology. Between Thebes and Khartum the western banks of the Nile are composed of Nubian Sandstone, which extends westward from the river to the edge of the great Libyan Desert, where it forms the bed rock. The age of this sandstone has given rise to much dispute. The upper part certainly belongs to the Cretaceous formation; the lower part has been con- sidered to be of Karroo age by some geologists, while others regard the whole formation to be of Cretaceous age. In the Kharga Oasis the upper portion consists of variously coloured unfossiliferous clays with intercalated bands of sandstone containing fossil silicified woods (fi'tiolia Aegyptiaca and Araucarioxylon Aegypticum) . They are conformably overlain by clays and limestones with Exogyra Oterwegi belonging to the Lower Danian, and these by clays and white chalk with Ananchytes mala of the Upper Danian. In many instances the Tertiary formation, which occurs between Esna and - >, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous, the Lower Eocene being absent. The fluvio-marine deposits of the Upper Eocene and pligocene formations contain an interesting mammalian fauna, proving that the African continent formed a centre of radiation for the mammalia in early Tertiary times. Arsinoilherium is the pre- cursor of the horned Ungulata; while Moeriiherium and Palaeo- mailodon undoubtedly include the oldest known elephants. Miocene strata are absent in the southern Tertiary areas, but are present at Moghara and in the north. Marine Pliocene strata occur to the south of the pyramids of Giza and in the Fayum province, where, in addition, some gravel terraces, at a height of 500 ft. above sea-level, are attributed to the Pliocene period. The Lake of Moeris, as a large body of fresh water, appears to have come into existence in Pleisto- cene times. It is represented now by the brackish-water lake of the Birket-el-Kerun. The superficial sands of the deserts and the Nile mud form the chief recent formations. The Nile deposits its mud over the valley before reaching the sea, and consequently the Delta receives little additional material. At Memphis the alluvial deposits are over 50 ft. thick. The superficial sands of the desert region, derived in large pan from the disintegration of the Nubian Sandstone, occupy the most extensive areas in the Libyan Desert. The other desert regions of Egypt are elevated stony plateaus, which are diversified by extensively excavated valleys and oases, and in which sand frequently plays quite a subordinate part. These regions present magnificent examples of dry erosion by wind-borne suml, which acts as a powerful sand blast etching away the rocks and producing most beautiful sculpturing. The rate of denudation in exposed positions is exceedingly rapid ; while spots sheltered from the sand blast suffer a minimum of erosion, as shown by the preser- vation of ancient inscriptions. Many of the Egyptian rocks in the desert areas and at the cataracts are coated with a highly polished film, of almost microscopic thinness, consisting chiefly of oxides of iron and manganese with salts of magnesia and lime. It is supposed to be due to a chemical change within the rock and not to deposition on the surface.) Minerals. — Egypt possesses considerable mineral wealth. In ancient times gold and precious stones were mined in the Red Sea hills. During the Moslem period mining was abandoned, and it was not until the oeginning of the 2oth century that renewed efforts were made to develop the mining industry. The salt obtained from Lake Mareotis at Meks, a western suburb of Alexandria, supplies the salt needed for the country, except a small quantity used for curing fish at Lake Menzala ; while the lakes in the Wadi Natron, 45 m. N.W. of the pyramids of Giza, furnish carbonate of soda in large quantities. Alum is found in the western oases. Nitrates and phos- phates are also found in various parts of the desert and are used as manures. The turquoise mines of Sinai, in the Wadi Maghara, are worked regularly by the Arabs of the peninsula, who sell the stones in Suez; while there are emerald mines at Jebel Zubara, south of Kosseir. Petroleum occurs at Jebel Zeit, on the west shore of the Gulf of Suez. Considerable veins of haematite of good quality occur both in the Red Sea hills and in Sinai. At Jebel ed-Dukhan arc porphyry quarries, extensively worked under the Romans, and at Jebel el-Fatira are granite quarries. At El-Hammamat, on the old way from Coptos to Philoteras Portus, are the breccia verde quarries, worked from very early times, and having interesting hieroglyphic inscriptions. At the various mines, and on the routes to them and to the Red Sea, are some small temples and stations, ranging from the Pharaonic to the Roman period. The quarries of Syene (Assuan) are famous for extremely hard and durable red granite (syenite), and have been worked since the days of the earliest Pharaohs. Large quantities of this syenite were used in building the Assuan dam (1898-1902). The cliffs bordering the Nile are largely quarried for limestone and sandstone. Gold-mining recommenced in 1905 at Urn Rus, a short distance inland from the Red Sea and some 50 m. S. of Kosseir, where milling operations were started in March of that year. Another mine opened in 1905 was that of Um Garaiat, E.N.E. of Korosko, and 65 in. distant- from the Nile. Climate. — Part of Upper Egypt is within the tropics, but the greater part of the country is north of the Tropic of Cancer. Except a narrow belt on the north along the Mediterranean shore, Egypt lies in an almost rainless area, where the temperature is high by day and sinks quickly at night in consequence of the rapid radiation under the cloudless sky. The mean temperature at Alexandria and Port Said varies between 57° F. in January and 81° F. in July; while at Cairo, where the proximity of the desert begins to be felt, it is 53° F. in January, rising to 84° F. in July. January is the coldest month, when occasionally in the Nile valley, and more frequently in the open desert, the temperature sinks to 32 F., or even a degree or two below. The mean maximum temperatures are 99° F. for Alexandria and 1 10° F. for Cairo. Farther south the range of temperature becomes greater as pure desert conditions are reached. Thus at Assuan the mean maximum is 118° F., the mean minimum 42° F. At Wadi Haifa the figures in each case are one degree lower. The relative humidity varies greatly. At Assuan the mean value for the year is only 38 %, that for the summer being 29 %, and for the winter 51%; while for Wadi Haifa the mean is 32%, and 20% and 42% are the mean values for summer and winter re- spectively. A white fog, dense and cold, sometimes rises from the Nile in the morning, but it is of short duration and rare occurrence. In Alexandria and on all the Mediterranean coast of Egypt rain falls abundantly in the winter months, amounting to 8 in. in the year; but southwards it rapidly decreases, and south of 31° N. little rain falls. Records at Cairo show that the rainfall is very irregular, and is furnished by occasional storms rather than by any regular rainy season; still, most falls in the winter months, especially December and January, while, on the other hand, none has been recorded in June and July. The average annual rainfall does not exceed 1-50 in. In the open desert rain falls even more rarely, but it is by no means unknown, and from time to time heavy storms burst, causing sudden floods in the narrow ravines, and drowning both men and animals. These are more common in the mountainous region of the Sinai peninsula, where they are much dreaded by the Arabs. Snow is unknown in the Nile valley, but on the mountains of Sinai and the Red Sea hills it is not uncommon, and a temperature of 18° F. at an altitude of 2000 ft. has been recorded in January. The atmospheric pressure varies between a maximum in January and a minimum in July, the mean difference being about 0-29 in. EGYPT [MODERN: FLORA. &c. In a series of records extending over 14 years the mean pressure varied between 29-84 and 29-90 in. The most striking meteorological factor in Egypt is the persistence of the north wind throughout the year, without which the climate would be very trying. It is this " Etesian " wind which enables sailing boats constantly to ascend the Nile, against its strong and rapid current. In December, January and February, at Cairo, the north wind slightly predominates, though those from the south and west often nearly equal it, but after this the north blows almost continuously for the rest of the year. In May and June the prevailing direction is north and north-north-east, and for July, August, September and October north and north-west. From the few observations that exist, it seems that farther south the southern winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming westerly, until at Assuan and Wadi Haifa the northerly winds are almost invariable through- out the year. The khamsin, hot sand-laden winds of the spring months, come invariably from the south. They are preceded by a rapid fall of the barometer for about a day, until a gradient from south to north is formed, then the wind commences to blow, at first gently, from the south-east; rapidly increasing in violence, it shifts through south to south-west, finally dropping about sunset. The same thing is repeated on the second and sometimes the third day, by which time the wind has worked round to the north again. During a khamsin the temperature is high and the air extremely dry, while the dust and sand carried by the wind form a thick yellow fog obscuring the sun. Another remarkable phenomenon is the zobaa, a lofty whirlwind of sand resembling a pillar, which moves with great velocity. The southern winds of the summer months which occur in the low latitudes north of the equator are not felt much north of Khartum. One of the most interesting phenomena of Egypt is the mirage, which is frequently seen both in the desert and in the waste tracts of uncultivated land near the Mediterranean ; and it is often so truthful in its appearance that one finds it difficult to admit the illusion. Flora. — Egypt possesses neither forests nor woods and, as practi- cally the whole of the country which will support vegetation is devoted to agriculture, the flora is limited. The most important tree is the date-palm, which grows all over Egypt and in the oases. The lower branches being regularly cut, this tree grows high and assumes a much more elegant form than in its natural state. The dom-palm is first seen a little north of 26° N., and extends south- wards. The vine grows well, and in ancient times was largely cultivated for wine ; oranges, lemons and pomegranates also abound. Mulberry trees are common in Lower Egypt. The sunt tree (Acacia nilotica) grows everywhere, as well as the tamarisk and the sycamore. In the deserts halfa grass and several kinds of thorn bushes grow; and wherever rain or springs have moistened the ground, numerous wild flowers thrive. This is especially the case where there is also shade to protect them from the midday sun, as in some of the harrow ravines in the eastern desert and in the palm groves of the oases, where various ferns and flowers grow luxuriantly round the springs. Among many trees which have been imported, the," lebbek " (Albizzia lebbek), a thick-foliaged mimosa, thrives especially, and has been very largely employed. The weeping-willow, myrtle, elm, cypress and eucalyptus are also used in the gardens and plantations. The most common of the fruits are dates, of which there are nearly thirty varieties, which are sold half-ripe, ripe, dried, and pressed in their fresh moist state in mats or skins. The pressed dates of Siwa are among the most esteemed. The Fayum is celebrated for its grapes, and chiefly supplies the market of Cairo. The most common grape is white, of which there is a small kind far superior to the ordinary sort. The black grapes are large, but comparatively tasteless. The vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable avenues in the gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides dates and grapes, are figs, sycamore-figs and pomegranates, apricots and peaches, oranges and citrons, lemons and limes, bananas, which are believed to be of the fruits of Paradise (being always in season), different kjnds of melons (including some of aromatic flavour, and the refreshing water-melon), mulberries, Indian figs or prickly pears, the fruit of the lotus and olives. Among the more usual cultivated flowers are the rose (which has ever been a favourite among the Arabs), the jasmine, narcissus, lily, oleander, chrysanthemum, convolvulus, geranium, dahlia, basil, the henna plant (Lawsonia alba, or Egyptian privet, which is said to be a flower of Paradise), the helianthus and the violet. Of wild flowers the most common are yellow daisies, poppies, irises, asphodels and ranunculuses. The Poinseltia pulcherrima is a bushy tree with leaves of brilliant red. Many kinds of reeds are found in Egypt, though they were formerly much more common. The famous byblus or papyrus no longer exists in the country, but other kinds of cyperi are found. The lotus, greatly prized for its flowers by the ancient inhabitants, is still found in the Delta, though never in the Nile itself. There are two varieties of this water-lily, one with white flowers, the other with blue. Fauna. — The chief quadrupeds are all domestic animals. Of these the camel and the ass are the most common. The ass, often a tall and handsome creature, is indigenous. When the camel was first introduced into Egypt is uncertain — it is not pictured on the ancient monuments. Neither is the buffalo, which with the sheep is very numerous in Egypt. The horses are of indifferent breed, apparently of a type much inferior to that possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Wild animals are few. The principal are the hyena, jackal and fox. The wild boar is found in the Delta. Wolves are rare. Numerous gazelles inhabit the deserts. The ibex is found" in the Sinaitic penin- sula and the hills between the Nile and the Red Sea, and the mouflon, or maned sheep, is occasionally seen in the same regions. The desert hare is abundant in parts of the Fayum, and a wild cat, or lynx, frequents the marshy regions of the Delta. The ichneumon (Pharaoh's rat) is common and often tame; the coney and jerboa, are found in the eastern mountains. Bats are very numerous. The crocodile is no longer found in Egypt, nor the hippopotamus, in ancient days a frequenter of the Nile. The common or pariah dog is generally of sandy colour; in Upper Egypt there is a breed of wiry rough-haired black dogs, noted for their fierceness. Among reptiles are several kinds of venomous snakes — the horned viper, the hooded snake and the echis. Lizards of many kinds are found, in- cluding the monitor. There are many varieties of beetle, including a number of species representing the scarabaeus of the ancients. Locusts are comparatively rare. The scorpion, whose sting is some- times fatal, is common. There are many large and poisonous spiders and flies; fleas and mosquitoes abound. Fish are plentiful in the Nile, both scaled and without scales. The scaly fish include members of the carp and perch kind. The bayad, a scaleless fish commonly eaten, reaches sometimes 35 ft. in length. A somewhat rare fish is the Polypterus, which has thick bony scales and 16 to 18 long dorsal fins. The Tetrodon, or ball fish, is found in the Red Sea, as well as in the Nile. Some 300 species of birds are found in Egypt, and one of the most striking features of a journey up the Nile is the abundance of bird life. Many of the species are sedentary, others are winter visitants, while others again simply pass through Egypt on their way to or from warmer or colder regions. Birds of prey are very numerous, including several varieties of eagles — the osprey, the spotted, the golden and the imperial. Of vultures the black and white Egyptian variety (Neophron percnopterus) is most common. The griffon and the black vulture are also frequently seen. There are many kinds of kites, falcons and hawks, kestrel being numerous. The long- legged buzzard is found throughout Egypt, as are owls. The so- called Egyptian eagle owl (Bubo ascalaphus) is rather rare, but the barn owl is common. The kingfisher is found beside every water- course, a black and white species (Ceryle rudis) being much more numerous than the common kingfisher. Pigeons and hoopoes abound in every village. There are various kinds of plovers — the black- headed species (Pluvianus Aegyptius) is most numerous in Upper Egypt; the golden plover and the white-tailed species are found chiefly in the Delta. The spurwing is supposed to be the bird mentioned by Herodotus as eating the parasites covering the inside of the mouth of the crocodile. Of game-birds the most plentiful are sandgrouse, quail (a bird of passage) and snipe. Red-legged and other partridges are found in the eastern desert and the Sinai hills. Of aquatic birds there is a great variety. Three species of pelican exist, including the large Dalmatian pelican. Storks, cranes, herons and spoonbills are common. The sacred ibis is not found in Egypt, but the buff-backed heron, the constant companion of the buffalo, is usually called an ibis. The glossy ibis is occasionally seen. The flamingo, common in the lakes of Lower Egypt, is not found on the Nile. Geese, duck and teal are abundant. The most common goose is the white-fronted variety ; the Egyptian goose is more rare. Both varieties are depicted on the ancient monuments; the white- fronted goose being commonly shown. Several birds of gorgeous plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the golden oriole, the sun-bird, the roller and the blue-cheeked bee-eater. Egypt as a Health Resort. — The country is largely resorted to during the winter months by Europeans in search of health as well as pleasure. Upper Egypt is healthier than Lower Egypt, where, especially near the coast, malarial fevers and diseases of the re- spiratory organs are not uncommon. The least healthy time of the year is the latter part of autumn, when the inundated soil is drying. In the desert, at a very short distance from the cultivable land, the climate is uniformly dry and unvaryingly healthy. The most suitable places for the residence of invalids are Helwan, where there are natural mineral springs, in the desert, 14 m. S. of Cairo, and Luxor and Assuan in Upper Egypt. The diseases from which Egyptians suffer are very largely the result of insanitary surroundings. In this respect a great improvement has taken place since the British occupation in 1882. Plague, formerly one of the great scourges of the country, seems to have been stamped out, the last visitation having been in 1844, but cholera epidemics occasionally occur.1 Cholera rarely extends south of Cairo. In 1848 it is believed that over 200,000 persons died from cholera, but later epidemics have been much less fatal. Smallpox is not un- common, and skin diseases are numerous, but the two most prevalent diseases among the Egyptians are dysentery and ophthalmia. The objection entertained by many natives to entering hospitals or to altering their traditional methods of " cure " renders these diseases much more malignant and fatal than they would be in other circum- stances. The government.however.enforces certain health regulations, and the sanitary service is under the direction of a European official. 1 A vivid description of Cairo during the prevalence of plague in 1835 will be found in A. W. Kinglake's Eothen. MODERN: TOU N-; EGYPT Ckief Tmms. — Cairo (7.*.) the capital, a city of Arabfoundation, Ls built on the east bank of the Nile, about i.» m. above the point where the river divides, and in reference to its situation at the head of the Delia has been called by the Arabs " the diamond stud in the handle of the fan of Egypt." It has a population (1907) of 654,476 and is the largest city in Africa. • in importance of the cities of Egypt and the chief seaport exandria (?.».), pop. (with Ramleh) 370,009, on the shore of (he Mediterranean at the western end of the Delta. Port Said (f.r), pop. 49,884, at the eastern end of the Delta, and at the north entrance to the Suez Canal, is the second seaport. Between Alexandria and Port Said are the towns of Rosetta (q.v.), pop. 16,810, and Damietta (?.».), pop. 19,354, each built a few miles above the mouth of the branch of the Nile of the same name. In the middle ages, when Alexandria was in decay, these two towns were busy ports; with the revival of Alexandria under Mchemet Al> and the foundation of Port Said (c. 1860), their trade declined. The other ports of Egypt are Suez (q.v.), pop. 18,347, at the south entrance of the canal, Kosseir (794) on the Red Sea, the seat of the trade carried on between Upper Egypt and Arabia, Mersa Matruh, near the Tripolitan frontier, and El-Arish, pop. 5897, on the Mediterranean, near the frontier of Palestine, and a halting-place on the caravan route from Egypt to Syria. In the interior of the Delta are many flourishing towns, the largest being Tanta, pop. 54,437, which occupies a central position. Damanhur (38,752) lies on the railway between Tanta and Alexandria; Mansura (40,279) is on the Damietta branch of the Nile, to the N.E. of Tanta; Zagazig (34,999) is the largest town in the Delta east of the Damietta branch; Bilbeis (13,485) lies N.N.E. of Cairo, on the edge of the desert and in the ancient Land of Goshen. Ismailia (10,373) is situated midway on the Suez Canal. All these towns, which depend largely on the cotton industry, are separately noticed. Other towns in Lower Egypt are: Mehallet el-Kubra, pop. 47,955, '6 m. by rail N.E. of Tanta, with manufactories of silk and cottons; Salihia (6100), E.N.E. of and terminus of a railway from Zagazig. on the edge of the desert south of Lake Mcnzala, and the starting-point of the caravans to Syria; Malaria (15,142) on Lake Mcnzala and headquarters of the fishing industry; Zifta (15,850) on ihe Damietta branch and the site of a barrage; Samanud (14,408), also on the Damietta branch, noted for its pottery, and Fua (14,515), where large quantities of tarbushes are made, on the Rosetta branch. Shibin el-Kom (21,576), i6m.S. of Tanta, is a cotton centre, and Menuf (22,316), 8 m. S.W. of Shibin, in the fork between the branches of the Nile, is the chief town of a rich agricultural district. There are many other towns in the Delta with populations between 10,000 and 20,000. In Upper Egypt the chief towns are nearly all in the narrow valley of the Nile. The exceptions are the towns in the oases comparatively unimportant, and those in the Fayum province. The capital of the Fayum, Medinet el-Fayum, has a population (1907) of 37.320. The chief towns on the Nile, taking them in their order in ascending the river from Cairo, are Beni Suef, Minia, Assiut, Akhmim. Suhag, Girga, Kena, Luxor, Esna, Edfu, Assuan and Korosko. Beni Suef (23,357) 's 77 m- from Cairo by rail. It is on the west bank of the river, is the capital of a mudiria and a centre for the manufacture of woollen goods. Minia (27,221) is 77 m. by rail farther south. It is also the capital of a mudiria, has a considerable European colony, potgciKi a large sugar factory and some cotton mills. It is the starting-point of a road to the Baharia oasis. Assiut (q.v.), pop. 39,442, is 235 m. S. of Cairo by rail, and is the most im- portant commercial centre in Upper Egypt. At this point a barrage is built across the river. Suhag (17,514) is 56 m. by rail S. of Assiut and is the headquarters of Girga mudiria. The ancient and celebrated Coptic monasteries El Abiad (the white) and El Ahmar (the red) are 3 to 4 m. W. and N.W. respectively of Suhag. A few miles above Suhag, on the opposite (east) side of the Nile is Akhmim (?.«.) or Ekhmim (23,795), where silk and cotton goods are made. Girga (q.v.), pop. 19,893, is 22 m. S. by nil of Suhag, and on the same (the west) ride of the river. It is noted for its pottery. Kcna (q.v.), pop. 20,069, is on the east bank of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of the manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used all over Egypt. Luxor (q.v.), pop. (with Karnak) 25,229, marks the site of Thebes. It is 418 m. from Cairo, and here the gauge of the railway is altered from broad to narrow. Esna ( in 1878 to 4,100,000 in 1800, had reached 5,434,000 in 1900, and wa» 6,750,000 in 1905. Its average value, 1897-1905, was over £14,000,000 a year. The cotton exported was valued in 1907 at 2E.2V598.ooo. in 1908 at ££.17.091,612. While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations, which cover about 100,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The cane* are planted in March and are cut in the following January or February. Although since 1884 the production of sugar has largely increased, there has not been a corresponding increase in its value, owing to the low price obtained in the markets of the world. Beetroot is also grown to a limited extent for the manufacture of sugar. The sugar exported varied in annual value in the period 1884-1005 from £400,000 to £765,000. A coarse and strong tobacco was formerly extensively grown, but its cultivation was prohibited in 1890. Flax and hemp are grown in a few places. Maize in Lower Egypt and millet (of which there are several varieties) in Upper Egypt are largely grown for home consumption, these grains forming a staple food of the peasantry. The stalk of the maize is also a very useful article. It is used in the building of the homes of the fellahin. as fuel, and, when green, as food for cattle. Wheat and barley are important crops, and some 2,000,000 acres are sown with them yearly. The barley in general is not of good quality, but the desert or " Mariut " barley, grown by the Bedouins in the coast region west of Alexandria, is highly prized for the making of beer. Beans and lentils are extensively sown, and form an important article of export. The annual value of the crops is over £3,000.000. Rice is largely grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil is very wet. Two kinds are cultivated : Sultani, a summer crop, and Sabatni, a flood crop. Sabaini is a favourite food of the fellahin, while Sultani rice is largely exported. In the absence of grass, the chief green food for cattle and horses is clover, grown largely in the basin lands of Upper Egypt. To a less extent vetches are grown for the same purpose. VetftabUt and Fruit.— Vegetables grow readily, and their cultivation is an important part of the work of the fellahin. The onion is grown in great quantities along the Nile banks in Upper Egypt, largely for export Among other vegetables commonly raised are tomatoes (the bulk of which are exported), potatoes (of poor quality), leeks, marrows, cucumbers, cauliflowers, lettuce, asparagus and spinach. The common fruits are the date, orange, citron, fig, grape, apncot, peach and banana. Olives, melons, mulberries and strawberries are also grown, though not in very large numbers. The olive tree flourishes only in the Fayum and the oases. The Fayum also pos- temet extensive vineyards. The date is a valuable economic asset. There are some 6,000,000 date-palms in the country, 4,000,000 bane in Upper Egypt. The fruit is one of the chief foods of the people. The value of the crop is about £1,500,000 a year. Reset and Dyes.— There are fields of roses in the Fayum, which •apply the market with rose-water. Of plants used for dyeing, the principal are bastard saffron, madder, woad and the indigo plant. The leaves of the henna plant are used to impart a bright red colour to the palm* of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the nails of both hand* and feet, of women and children, the hair of old ladies and the tails of bones. Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the 1 A kantar equals 99 Ib. shirts of the natives of the poorer classes, and is, when very dark, the colour of mourning; therefore, women at funerals, and generally after a death, smear themselves with it. Domestic Animals — The Egyptians are not particularly a pastoral people, though the wealth of the Bedouin in the Eastern or Arabian Desert consists in tlu-ir r.unela, horses, sheep and goats. In the Nile valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, mule, ox, buffalo, sheep and goat. Horses are comparatively few, and are seldom seen outside the large towns, the camel and donkey being the principal beasts of burden. The cattle are short-horned, rather small and well formed. They are quiet in disposition, and much valued for agricultural labour by the people, who therefore very rarely slaughter them for meat. Buffaloes of an uncouth appearance and of a dark slaty colour, strikingly contrasting with the neat cattle, abound in Egypt. They are very docile, and the little children of the villagers often ride them to or from the river. The buffaloes are largely employed for turning the sukius. Sheep (of which the greater number are black) and goats are abundant, and mutton is the ordinary butcher's meat. The wool is coarse and short. Swine are very rarely kept, and then almost wholly for the European inhabi- tants, the Copts generally abstaining from eating their meat. Poultry is plentiful and eggs form a considerable item in the exports. Pigeons are kept in every village and their flesh is a common article of food. Fishing. — The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some 4000 persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the Nile also, and arc caught in large quantities alone the coast of the Delta. The salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria, on Lake Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs, called batarekh, command a ready market. The average annual value of the fisheries is about £200,000. Canals. — The irrigation canals, which are also navigable by small craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which derive their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera, known in its lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as the Rosetta canal, follows the west bank of the Rpsetta branch of the Nile and has numerous offshoots. The most important is the Mahmudia (50 m. long),which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta branch, taking a similar direction to that of the ancient canal which it succeeded. This canal supplies Alexandria with fresh water. The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches of the Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the central part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the Damietta branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the Mansuria, and below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal has many branches. Farther east are other canals, of which the most remarkable occupy in part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches. That following the old Tanitic channel is called the canal of Al-Mo'izz, the first Fatimite caliph who ruled in Egypt, having been dug by his orders, and the latter bears the name of the canal of Abu-f-Muneegi, a Jew who executed this work, under the caliph Al-Amir, in order to water the province called the Shark!, i. From this circumstance this canal is also known as the Sharkawia. _ From a town on its bank it is called in its lower course the Shibini canal. The superfluous water from all the Delta canals is drained off by bahrs (rivers) into the coast lakes. The Ismailia or Fresh-water canal branches from the Nile at Cairo and follows, in the main, the course of the canal which anciently joined the Nile and the Red Sea. _ It dates from Pharaonic times, having been begun by " Sesostris," continued by Necho II. and by Darius Hystaspes, and at length finished by Ptolemy Philadelphus. This canal, having fallen into disrepair, was restored in the 7th century A.D. by the Arabs who conquered Egypt, but appears not long afterwards to have again become unserviceable. The existing canal was dug in 1863 to supply fresh water to the towns on the Suez Canal. Although designed for irrigation purposes, the Delta canals are also used for the transport of passengers and goods. In Upper Egypt the most important canals are the Ibrahimia and the Bahr Yusuf (the River of Joseph). They are both on the west side of the Nile. The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile at Assiut, and runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the Bahr Yusuf, which runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia, until it diverges to supply the Fayum — a distance of some 350 m. It leaves the Ibrahimia at Derut near its original point of departure from the Nile. Although the Joseph whence it takes its name is the celebrated Saladin, it is related that he merely repaired it, and it is not doubted to be of a much earlier period. Most probably it was executed under the Pharaohs. By some authorities it is believed to be a natural channel canalized. Besides supplying the canals of the Fayum with summer water, it fills many of the " basins " of Upper Egypt with water in flood time. Manufactures and Native Industries. — Although essentially an agricultural country, Egypt possesses several manufactures. In connexion with the cotton industry there are a few mills where calico is made or oil crushed, and ginning-mills are numerous. In Upper Egypt there are a number of factories for sugar-crushing and refining, and one or two towns of the Delta EGYPT [MODERN: COMMERCE possess rice mills. Flour mills are found in every part of the country, the maize and other grains being ground for home consumption. Soap-making and leather-tanning are carried on and there are breweries at Alexandria and Cairo. The manu- facture of tobacco into cigarettes, carried on largely at Alexandria and Cairo, is another important industry. Native industries include the weaving of silk, woollen, linen and cotton goods the hand- woven silk shawls and draperies being often rich anc elegant. The silk looms are chiefly at Mehallet el-Kubra, Cairo and Damietta. The Egyptians are noted for the making ol pottery of the commoner kinds, especially water-jars. There is at Cairo and in other towns a considerable industry in orna- mental wood and metal work, inlaying with ivory and pearl, brass trays, copper vessels, gold and silver ornaments, &c. At Cairo and in the Fayum, attar of roses and other perfumes are manufactured. Boat-building is an important trade. Commerce. — The trade of Egypt has developed enormously since the British occupation in 1882 ensured to all classes of the com- munity the enjoyment of the profit of their labour. The total value of the exterior trade increased in the 20 years 1882 to 1902 from £19,000,000 to £32,400,000. The wealth of Egypt lying in the culti- vation of its soil, almost all the exports are agricultural produce, while the imports are mostly manufactured goods, minerals and hardware. The chief exports in order of importance are: raw cotton, cotton seed, sugar, beans, cigarettes, onions, rice and gum- arabic. The gum is not of native produce, being in transit from the Sudan. Of less importance are the exports of hides and skins, eggs, wheat and other grains, wool, quails, lentils, dates and Sudan produce in transit. The principal articles imported are: cotton goods and other textiles, coal, iron and steel, timber, tobacco, machinery, flour, alcoholic liquors, petroleum, fruits, coffee and live animals. There is an ad valorem duty of 8 % on imports and of about I % on exports. Tobacco and precious stones and metals pay heavier duties. The tobacco is imported chiefly from Turkey and Greece, is made into cigarettes in Egypt, and in this form exported to the value of about £500,000 yearly. In comparison with cotton, all other exports are of minor account. The cotton exported, of which Great Britain takes more than half, is worth over three-fourths of the total value of goods sent abroad. Next to cotton, sugar is the most important article exported. A large proportion of the sugar manufactured is, however, consumed in the country and does not figure in the trade returns. Of the imports the largest single item is cotton goods, nearly all being sent from England. Woollen goods come chiefly from England, Austria and Germany, silk goods from France. Large quantities of ready-made clothes and fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods, machinery, locomotives, &c., come chiefly from England, Belgium and Germany, coal from England, live stock from Turkey and the Red Sea ports, coffee from Brazil, timber from Russia, Turkey and Sweden. A British consular report (No. 3121, annual series), issued in 1904, shows that in the period 1887-1902 the import trade of Egypt nearly doubled. In the same period the proportion of imports from the United Kingdom fell from 39-63 to 36-76 %. Though the percentage decreased, the value of imports from Great Britain increased in the same period from £2,500,000 to £4,500,000. In addition to imports from the United Kingdom, British possessions took 6-0% of the import trade. Next to Great Britain, Turkey had the largest share of the import trade, but it had declined in the sixteen years from 19 to 15%. France about 10%, and Austria 6-72%, came next, but their import trade was declining, while that of Germany had risen from^less than I to over 3%, and Belgium imports from 1-74 to 4°27 %• In the same period (1887-1902) Egyptian exports to Great Britain decreased from 63-25 to 52-30%, Germany and the United States showing each an increase of over 6-0 %. Exports to Germany had increased from 0-13 to 6-75%, to the United States from 0-26 to 6-70%. Exports to France had remained practically stationary at 8-0%; those to Austria had dropped from 6-30 to 4-0%, to Russia from 9-11 to 8-43%. For the quinquennial period 1901-1905, the average annual value of the exterior trade was:— imports £17,787,296; exports £18,811,588; total £36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the merchandise imported and exported, exclusive of transit, re- exportation and specie, was ££.54,134,000 — constituting a record trade return. The value of the imports was ££.26,121,000, of the exports ££.28,013,000. Shipping.— More than 90% of the external trade passes through the port of Alexandria. Port Said, which in consequence of its position at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal has more frequent and regular communication with Europe, is increasing in importance and is the port where mails and passengers are landed. Over 3000 ships enter and clear harbour at Alexandria every year. The total tonnage entering the port increased in the five years 1901-1905 from 2.555.259 to 3,591,281. In the same period the percentage of British shipping, which before 1900 was nearly 50, varied from 40 to 45 No other nation had more than 12 % of the tonnage, Italy, France, Austria and Turkey each having 9 to 12 %. The tonnage of German ships increased in the five years mentioned from 3 to 7%. In number of steamships entering the harbour Great Britain is first with some 800 yearly, or about 50% of all steamers entering. The sailing boats entering the harbour are almost entirely Turkish. They are vessels of small tonnage. The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traffic through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt. The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years 1880- 1900 from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were:— Number of ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British and 600 German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and 2,113,484 German). Next to British and German the nationality of ships using the canal in order of importance is French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian and Russian. About 250,000 passengers (includ- ing some 40,000 pilgrims to Mecca) pass through the canal in a year (see further SUEZ). Currency.— The monetary system in force dates from 1885, when through the efforts of Sir Edgar Vincent the currency was placed on a sound basis. The system is based on the single gold standard. The unit is a gold coin called a pound and equal to £l, os. 6d in English currency. The Egyptian pound (£E.) is divided into loo piastres, of which there are coins in silver of 20,10,5 and 2 piastres. One, J, J and -^ piastre pieces are coined in nickel and & and <\ piastre pieces m bronze. The one piastre piece is worth a fraction over 25d. The A of a piastre is popularly called a para and the native population generally reckon in paras. The legal piastre is called the piastre tariff (P.T.), to distinguish it from the i piastre which in local usage in Cairo and Alexandria is called a piastre. Officially the $ piastre is known as 5 milliemes, and so with the coins of lower denomination, the para being i millieme. The old terms kis or " purse " (500 piastres) and khazna or " treasury " (1000 purses) are still occasionally used. Formerly European coins of all kinds were in general circulation, now the only foreign coins current are the English sovereign, the French 20 franc piece and the Turkish mejidie, a gold coin worth 18 shillings. For several years no Egyptian gold pieces have been coined. Egyptian silver money is minted at Birmingham, and nickel and bronze money at Vienna. Bank-notes, of the National Bank, are issued for £E. 100, ££.50, £E. 10, ££.5 and £E.i, and for 50 piastres. The notes are not legal tender,' but are accepted by the government in payment of taxes. The history of the currency reform in Egypt is interesting as affording a practical example of a system much discussed in con- nexion with the currency question in India, namely, a gold standard without a gold coinage. The Egyptian pound is practically non- existent, nearly all that were coined having been withdrawn from circulation. Their place has been taken by foreign gold, principally the English sovereign, which circulates at a value of 97$ piastres. In practice the system works perfectly smoothly, the gold flowing in and out of the country through the agency of private banking estab- lishments in proportion to the requirements of the circulation. It is, moreover, very economical for the government. As in most agri- cultural countries, there is a great expansion of the circulation in the autumn and winter months in order to move the crops, followed by a long period of contracted circulation throughout the rest of the year. Under the existing system the fluctuating requirements of the currency are met without the expense of alternately minting and melting down. Weights and Measures. — The metrical system of weights and measures is in official but not in popular use, except in the foreign quarters of Cairo, Alexandria, &c. The most common Egyptian measures are the fitr, or space measured by the extension of the :humb and first finger; the shibr, or span; and the cubit (of three cinds = 22f , 25 and 26$ in.). The measure of land is thefeddan, equal ;o 1-03 acres, subdivided into 24 kirats. The ardeb is equal to about 5 bushels, and is divided into 6 waybas, and each wayba into 24 rubas. The okieh equals 1-32 oz., the roll -99 ft, the oke 2-75 ft, the kantar (or 100 rolls or 36 okes) 99-04 ft. Constitution and Administration. — Egypt is a tributary state of the Turkish empire, and is ruled by an hereditary prince with the style of khedive, a Persian title regarded as the equiva- ent of king. The succession to the throne is by primogeniture. The central administration is carried on by a council of ministers, appointed by the khedive, one of whom acts as prime minister. To these is added a British financial adviser, who attends all meetings of the council of ministers, but has not a vote; on the other hand, no financial decision may be taken without his consent. The ministries are those of the interior, finance, public works, justice, war, foreign affairs and public instruction,1 and n each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are 1 To the ministry of public instruction was added in 1906 a depart- ment of agriculture and technical instruction. MODERN: LAW] EGYPT 29 then submitted to the council of ministers for approval, and on being signed by the khedive become law. No important decision, however, has been taken since 188.- without the concurrence of the British minister plenipotentiary. With a few exceptions, laws cannot, owing to the Capitulations, be enforced against foreigners except with the consent of the powers. While the council of ministers with the khedive forms the legislative authority, there are various representative bodies with strictly limited powers. The legislative council is a con- sultative body, partly elective, partly nominative. It examines the budget and all proposed administrative laws, but cannot initiate legislation, nor is the government bound to adopt its suggestions. The general assembly consists of the legislative council and the ministers of state, together with popularly elected members, who form a majority of the whole assembly. It has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal tax nor land tax can be imposed without its consent. It must meet at least once in every two years. For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute governorships (moaftas), the rest of the country being divided into mudirias or provinces. The governors and mudirs (heads of provinces) are responsible to the ministry of the interior. The provinces are further divided into districts, each of which is under a mamur, who in his turn supervises and controls the omda, mayor or head-man, of each village in his district. The governorships are: Cairo; Alexandria, which includes an area of 70 sq. m.; Suez Canal, including Port Said and Ismaiiia; Suez and EI-Arish. Lower Egypt is divided into the provinces of: Bchera, Gharbia, Menufia, Dakahlia, Kaliubia, Sharkia. The oasis of Siwa and the country to the Tripoli! :m frontier are dependent on the province of Behera. Upper Egypt: Giza, Beni Suef, Kayum, Minia, Assiut, Girga, Kena, Assuan. The peninsula of Sinai is administered by the war office. Justice. — There are four judicial systems in Egypt: two applicable to Egyptian subjects only, one applicable to foreigners only, and one applicable to foreigners and, to a certain extent, natives also. This multiplicity of tribunals arises from the fact that, owing to the Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as part of the Turkish empire, foreigners are almost entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of the native courts. It will be convenient to state first the law as regards foreigners, and secondly the law which concerns Egyptians. Criminal jurisdiction over foreigners is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen powers possessing such right by treaty, according to the law of the country of the offender. These consular courts also judge civil cases between foreigners of the same nationality. Jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners and between foreigners of different nationalities is no longer exercised by the consular courts. The grave abuse to which the consular system was subject led to the establishment, in February 1876, at the instance of Nubar Pasha and after eight yean of negotiation, of International or " Mixed " Tribunals to supersede consular jurisdiction to the extent indicated. The Mixed Tribunals employ a code based on the Code NapoUon with such additions from Mahommedan law as are applicable. There are three tribunals of first instance, and an appeal court at Alexandria. These courts have both foreign and Egyptian judges — the foreign judges forming the majority of the bench. In certain designated matters they enjoy criminal jurisdiction, including, since 1000, offences against the bankruptcy laws. Cases have to be conducted in Arabic, French, Italian and English, English having been admitted as a "judicial language" by khedivial decree of the i?th of April 1905. Besides their judicial duties, the courts practically exercise legislative func- tions, as no important law can be made applicable to Europeans without the consent of the powers, and the powers are mainly guided by the opinions of the judges of the Mixed Courts. The judicial systems applicable solely to Egyptians are supervised by the ministry of justice, to which has been attached since 1800 a British judicial adviser. Two systems of laws are administered.- — (i) the tfekkemeks, (2) the Native Tribunals. The mekkemeks, or courts of the cadis, judge in all matters of personal status, such as marriage, inheritance and guardianship, and are guided in their decisions by the code of laws founded on the Koran. The grand, cadi, who must belong to the sect of the Hiinijis. sits at Cairo, and is aided by a council of Ulema or learned men. This council consists of the sheikh or religious chief of each of the four orthodox sects, the sheikh of the mosque of Azhar, who is of the sect of the Shafi'is, the chief (nakib) of the Sherifs, or descendants of Mahomet, and others. The cadis are chosen from among the students at the Azhar university. (In the same manner, in matters of personal law, Copts and other non-Moslem Egyptians are, in general, subject to the jurisdiction of their own religious chiefs.) For other than the purposes indicated, the native judicial system, both civil and criminal, was superseded in 1884 by tribunals administering a jurisprudence modelled on that of the French code. It is, in the words of Lord Cromer, " in many respects ill adapted to meet the special needs of the country " (Egypt, No. i, 1904, p. 33). The system was, on the advice of an Anglo-Indian official (Sir John Scott), modified and simplified in 1891, but its essential character remained unaltered. In 1904, however, more important modifications were introduced. Save on points of law, the right of appeal in criminal cases was abolished, and assize courts, whose judgments were final, established. At the same time the penal code was thoroughly revised, so that the Egyptian judges were " for the first time provided with a sound working code " (Ibid. p. 49). The native courts have both native and foreign judges. There are courts of summary juris- diction presided over by one judge, central tribunals (or courts of first instance) with three judges, and a court of appeal at Cairo. A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of the courts of first instance and the summary courts, and endeavours, by letters and discussions, to maintain purity and sound law. There is a procureur-gfnfral, who, with other duties, is entrusted with criminal prosecutions. His representatives are attached to each tribunal, and form the parquet under whose orders the police act in bringing criminals to justice. In the markak (dis- trict) tribunals, created in 1004 and presided over by magistrates with jurisdiction in cases of misdemeanour, the prosecution is, however, conducted directly by the police. Special Children's Courts have been established for the trial of juvenile offenders. The police service, which has been subject to frequent modifica- tion, was in 1895 put under the orders of the ministry of the interior, to which a British adviser and British inspectors are attached. The provincial police is under the direction of the local authorities, the mudirs or governors of provinces, and the mamurs or district officials; to the omdas, or village head-men, who are responsible for the good order of the villages, a limited criminal jurisdiction has been entrusted. Religion. — The great majority of the inhabitants are Mahorn- medans. In 1907 the Moslems numbered over ten millions, or 91-8% of the entire population. The Christians in the same year numbered 880,000, or 8% of the population. Of these the Coptic Orthodox church had some 667 ,000 adherents. Among other churches represented were the Greek Orthodox, the Ar- menian, Syrian and Maronite, the Roman Catholic and various Protestant bodies. The last-named numbered 37,000 (including 24,000 Copts). There were in 1907 over 38,000 Jews in Egypt. The Mahommedans are Sunnites, professing the creed com- monly termed " orthodox," and are principally of the persuasion of the Shafi'is, whose celebrated founder, the imam ash-Shafi'i, is buried in the great southern cemetery of Cairo. Many of them are, however, Hanifis (to which persuasion the Turks chiefly belong), and in parts of Lower, and almost universally in Upper, Egypt, Mdlikis. Among the Moslems the Sheikh-el- Islam, appointed by the khedive from among the Ulema (learned class), exercises the highest religious and, in certain subjects, judicial authority. There is also a grand cadi, nominated by the sultan of Turkey from among the Ulema of Stamboul. Valuable property is held by the Moslems in trust for the promotion of religion and for charitable purposes, and is known as the Wakfs administration. The revenue derived is over £250,000 yearly. The Coptic organization includes in Egypt three metropolitans EGYPT [MODERN: EDUCATION and twelve bishops, under the headship of the patriarch of Alexandria. The minor orders are arch-priests, priests, arch- deacons, deacons, readers and monks (see COPTS: Coptic Church). Education. — Two different systems of education exist, one founded on native lines, the other European in character. Both systems are more or less fully controlled by the ministry of public instruction. The government has primary, secondary and technical schools, training colleges for teachers, and schools of agriculture, engineering, law, medicine and veterinary science. The government system, which dates back to a period before the British occupation, is designed to provide, in the main, a European education. In the primary schools Arabic is the medium of instruction, the use of English for that purpose being confined to lessons in that language itself. The school of law is divided into English and French sections according to the language in which the students study law. Besides the govern- ment primary and secondary schools, there are many other schools in the large towns owned by the Moslems, Copts, Hebrews, and by various missionary societies, and in which the education is on the same lines. A movement initiated among the leading Moslems led in 1908 to the establishment as a private enterprise of a national Egyptian university devoted to scientific, literary and philosophical studies. Political and religious subjects are excluded from the curriculum and no discrimination in regard . to race or religion is allowed. Education on native lines is given in kuttabs and in the Azhar university in Cairo. Kuttabs are schools attached to mosques, found in every village and in every quarter of the larger towns. In these schools the instruction given before the British occupation was very slight. All pupils were taught to recite portions of the Koran, and a proportion of the scholars learnt to read and write Arabic and a little simple arithmetic. Those pupils who succeeded in committing to memory the whole of the Koran were regarded as fiki (learned in Mahommedan law), and as such escaped liability to military conscription. The government has improved the education given in the kutlabs, and numbers of them have been taken under the direct control of the ministry of public instruction. In these latter schools an excellent elementary secular education is given, in addition to the instruction in the Koran, to which half the school hours are devoted. The number of pupils in 1905 was over 12,000 boys and 2000 girls. Grants-in-aid are given to other schools where a sufficiently good standard of instruction is maintained. No grant is made to any kuttab where any language other than Arabic is taught. In all there are over 10,000 kuttabs, attended by some 250,000 scholars. The number of pupils in private schools under government inspection was in 1898, the first year of the grant-in-aid system, 7536; in 1900, 12,315; in 1905, 145,691. The number of girls in attendance rose from 598 in 1898 to 997 in 1900 and 9611 in 1905. The Copts have about 1000 primary schools, in which the teaching of Coptic is compulsory, a few industrial schools, and one college for higher instruction. Cairo holds a prominent place as a seat of Moslem learning, and its university, the Azhar, is considered the first of the eastern world. Its professors teach " grammatical inflexion and syntax, rhetoric, versification, logic, theology, the exposition of the Koran, the traditions of the Prophet, the complete science of jurisprudence, or rather of religious, moral, civil and criminal law, which is chiefly founded on the Koran and the traditions, together with arithmetic as far as it is useful in matters of law. Lectures are also given on algebra and on the calculations of the Mahommedan calendar, the times of prayer, &c." (E. W. Lane, Modern Egyptians). The students come from all parts of the Mahommedan world. They number about 8000, of whom some 2000 are resident. The students pay no fees, and the professors receive no salaries. The latter main- tain themselves by private teaching and by copying manuscripts, and the former in the same manner, or by reciting the Koran. To meet the demand for better qualified judges for the Moslem courts a training college for cadis was established in 1907. Besides the subjects taught at the Azhar university, instruction is given in literature, mathematics and physical science. The necessity for a reorganization of the Azhar system itself being also recognized by the. high Moslem dignitaries in Egypt, a law was passed in 1907 creating a superior board of control under the presidency of the Sheikh el-Azhar to supervise the proceedings of the university and other similar establishments. This attempt to reform the Azhar met, however, with so much opposition that in 1909 it was, for the time, abandoned. In 1907, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of age, some 12 % of the Moslems could read and write, female literacy having increased 50% since 1897; of the foreign population over seven years of age 75 % could read and write. Of the Coptic com- munity about 50% can read and write. Literature and the Press. — Since the British occupation there has been a marked renaissance of Arabic learning and literature in Egypt. Societies formed for the encouragement of Arabic literature have brought to light important texts bearing on Mahommedan history, antiquities and religion. Numbers of magazines and reviews are published in Arabic which cater both for the needs of the moment and the advancement of learning. Side by side with these literary organs there exists a vernacular press largely devoted to nationalist propaganda. Prominent among these papers is Al Lewa (The Standard), founded in 1900. Other papers of a similar character are Al Omma, Al Moayad and Al Cerida. The Mokattam represents the views of the more enlightened and con- servative section of the native population. In Cairo and Alexandria there are also published several newspapers in English and French. AUTHORITIES.— (a) General descriptions, geography, travel, &c • Description de I'Egypte, 10 folio vols. and atlas of 10 vols. (Paris, 1809-1822), compiled by the scientific commission sent to Egypt by Bonaparte; Clot Bey, Aperfu general sur I'Egypte, 2 vols. (Paris, 1840); Boinet Bey, Dictionnaire geographique de I Egypte (Cairo 1899); Murray's and Baedeker's handbooks and Guide Joanne; G. Ebers, Egypt, Descriptive, Historical and Picturesque, translated from the German edition of 1879 by Clara Bell, new edition, 2 vols (London, 1887) ; Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, Modern Egypt and Thebes (2 vols., London, 1843); Lady Duff Gordon, Letters from Egypt, complete edition (London, 1902), an invaluable account of social conditions in the period 1862-1869; A. B. Edwards, A Thousand Miles up the Nile (2nd edition, London, n.d. [1889]); Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers (London, 1892); H. W. Mardon, Geography of Egypt . . . (London, 1902), an excellent elementary text-book; D. G. Hogarth, The Nearer East (London, 1902), contains brief but suggestive chapters on Egypt; S. Lane Poole, Egypt (London, 1881) ; A. B. de Guerville, New Egypt, translated from the French (London, 1905) ; R. T. Kelly, Egypt Painted and Described (London, 1902). The best maps are those of the Survey Department, Cairo, on the scale of I : 50000 (1-3 in. to the mile). (b) Administration : Sir John Bowring's Report on Egypt ... to Lord Palmerston (London, 1840) shows the system obtaining at that period. For the study of the state of Egypt at the time of the British occupation, 1882, and the development of the country since, the most valuable documents' are: I. Official. — The Reports on the Finances, Administration and Condition of Egypt, issued yearly since 1892 (the reports 1888-1891 were exclusively financial). Up to 1906 the reports were by Lord Cromer (Sir Evelyn Baring). They clearly picture the progress of the country. The following reports are specially valuable as ex- hibiting the difficulties which at the outset confronted the British administrators: — Correspondence respecting the Reorganization of Egypt (1883) ; Reports by Mr Villiers Stuart respecting Reorganization of Egypt (1883 and 1895) ; Despatch from Lord Dufferin forwarding the Decree constituting the New Political Institutions of Egypt (1883); Reports on the Stale of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative Reforms (1885); Reports by Sir H. D. Wolff on the Administration of Egypt (1887). Annual returns are published in Cairo in English or French by the various ministries, and British consular reports on the trade of Egypt and of Alexandria and of the tonnage and shipping of the Suez Canal are also issued yearly. II. Non-official. — Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (2 vols., 1908), an authoritative record; Alfred (Lord) Milner, England in Egypt, first published in 1892, the story being brought up to 1904 in the nth edition; Sir A. Colvin, The Making of Modern Egypt (1906); J. Ward, Pyramids and Progress (1900) ; A. S. White, The Expansion of Egypt (1899) ; and F. W. Fuller, Egypt and the Hinterland (1901). See also the works cited in History, last section. (c) Law: H. Lamba, De devolution de la condition juridique des Europeens en Egypte (Paris, 1896) ; J. H. Scott, The Law affecting Foreigners in Egypt . . . (Edinburgh, 1907) ; The Egyptian Codes (London, 1892). (d) Irrigation, agriculture, geology, &c. : Despatch from Sir Evelyn Baring enclosing Report on the Condition of the Agricultural Population in Egypt (1888); Notes on Egyptian Crops (Cairo, 1896); Yacub Artin Bey, La Pt opriete fonciere en Egypte (Bulak, 1885); Report on Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt, I vol. and atlas (Cairo, 1894). The reports (Egypt, No. 2, 1901, and Egypt, No. 2, 1904), by Sir William Garstin on irrigation projects on the Upper Nile are very valuable records — notably the 1904 report. W. Will- cocks, Egyptian Irrigation (2nd ed., 1899); H. G. Lyons, The Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin (Cairo, 1906); Leigh Canney, The Meteorology of Egypt and its Influence on Disease (1897). Annual meteorological reports are issued by the Public Works Department, Cairo. The same department issues special irrigation reports. See for geology Carl von Zittel, Beitrdge zur Geologic und Paldontologie der libyschen Wuste (Cassel, 1883); Reports of the "•eological Survey of Egypt (Cairo, 1900, et seq.). (e) Natural history, anthropology, &c. : F. Pruner, Agyptens Naturgeschichte und Anthropologie (Erlangen, 1848); R. Hartmann, Naturgeschichtliche Skizze der Nilldnder (Berlin, 1866); Captain " E. Shelley, Birds of Egypt (London, 1872). (F. R. C.) 1 The place of publication is London unless otherwise stated. MODERN: INHABITANTS] EGYPT The population enumerated at the census taken in April. 1907 was 1 1 ,189,978. In these figures nomad Arabs or Bedouins, esti- mated to number 97^381, are not included. The total population was thus returned at 11,287,359, or some 16% more than in 1897 when the inhabitants numbered 9,734,405. The figures for 1897 compared with 6,813,919 in 1882, an increase of 43.5% in fifteen years. Thus, during the first twenty-five years of the British occupation of the country the population in- creased by nearly 4,500,000. In 1800 the French estimated the population at no more than 2,460,000; the census of 1846 gave the figures at 4,476,440. From that year to 1882 the average annual increase was 1.25%. If the desert regions be iJcd, the population of Egypt is extremely dense, being about 939 per sq. m. This figure may be compared with that of Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe, 589 per sq. m., and with that of Bengal, 586 per sq. m. In parts of Menufia, a Delta province, the density rises to 1352 per sq. m., and in the Kena province of Upper Egypt to 1308. The population is generally divisible into — I The lellahin or peasantry and the native townsmen. a. The Bedouins or nomad Arabs of the desert. 3. The Nuba, Nubians or Berbcrin. inhabitants of the Nile valley between Assuan and Dongola. 4* Foreigners, The first of these divisions includes both the Moslem and Coptic inhabitants. The Bedouins, or the Arabs of the desert, are of two different classes: first, Arabic-speaking tribes who range the deserts as far south as 25° N.; secondly, the tribes inhabiting the desert from Kosscir to Suakin, namely the Hadendoa, Bisharin and the Ababda tribes. This group speak a language of their own, and are probably descendants of the Blcmmyes, who occupied these parts in ancient times (see ARABS; BEDOUINS; HADENDOA; BisuARlN; &c.). The Nubas are of mixed negro and Arab blood. They are mainly agri- culturists, though some are keen traders (see NUBIA). Foreigners number over 150,000 and form i§% of the total population. They are chiefly Greeks — of whom the majority live in Alexandria — Italians, British and French. Syrians and Levantines are numerous, and there is a colony of Persians. The Turkish element is not numerically strong — a few thousands only — but holds a high social position. Of the total population, about 20% is urban. In addition to the 97,000 pure nomads, there are half a million Bedouins described as " semi-sedentaries," i.e. tent-dwelling Arabs, usually encamped in those parts of the desert adjoining the cultivated land. The rural classes are mainly engaged in agriculture, which occupies over 62% of the adults. The professional and trading classes form about 10% of the whole population, but 50% of the foreigners are engaged in trade. Of the total population the males exceed the females by some 46,000. The Coptic inhabitants are described in the article COPTS, and the rural population under FELLAH. It remains here to describe char- acteristics and customs common to the Moslem Egyptians and particularly to those of the cities. In some respects the manner of life of the natives has been modified by contact with Europeans, and what follows depicts in general the habits of the people where little affected by western culture. With regard to physical characteristics the Egyptians are of full average height (the men are mostly 5 ft. 8 in. or 5 ft. 9 in ), and both sexes are remarkably well proportioned and of strong physique. The Cairencs and the inhabitants of Lower t generally have a clear complexion and soft skin of a light nsh colour; those of Middle Egypt have a tawny skin, and the dwellers in Upper Egypt a deep oronze or brown complexion. The bee of the men is of a line oval, forehead prominent but seldom high, straight now, eyes deep set, black and brilliant, mouth well formed, but with rather full lips, regular teeth beautifully made, and beard usually black and curly but scanty. Moustaches are worn, while the head is shaved save for a small tuft (called shuiheh) upon the crown. As to the women, " from the age of about fourteen to that of eighteen or twenty, they are generally models of beauty in body and limbs; and in countenance most of them are pleasing, and many exceedingly lovely; but soon after they have attained their perfect growth, they rapidly decline." There are few Egyptian women over forty who retain either good looks or good figures. " The forms of womanhood begin to develop themselves about the ninth and tenth year: at the age of fifteen or sixteen they gener- ally attain their highest degree of perfection. With regard to their complexions, the same remarks apply to them as to the men, with only this difference, that their faces, being generally veiled when they go abroad, are not quite so much tanned as those of the men. They arc characterized, like the men, by a fine oval countenance, though in some instances it is rather broad. The eyes, with very few exceptions, are black, large and of a long almond-form, with long and beautiful lashes, and an exquisitely soft, bewitching ex- pression— eyes more beautiful can hardly be conceived: their charming effect is much heightened by the concealment of the other features (however pleasing the latter may be), and is rendered still more striking by a practice universal among the females of the higher and middle classes, and very common among those of the lower orders, which is that of blackening the edge of the eyelids both above ami below the eye, with a black powder called ' kohl' " (Lane, Modern Egyptians). Both sexes, but especially the women, tattoo several parts of the person, and the women stain their hands and feet with the red dye of the henna. The dress of the men of the upper and middle classes who have not adopted European clothing — a practice increasingly common — consists of cotton drawers, and a cotton or silk shirt with _ very wide sleeves. Above these are generally worn a f^«? waistcoat without sleeves, and a long vest of silk, called ' kaftan, which has hanging sleeves, and reaches nearly to the ankles. The kaftan is confined by the girdle, which is a silk scarf, or cash- mere or other woollen shawl. Over all is worn a long cloth robe, the gibbch (or jibbeh) somewhat resembling the kaftan in shape, but having shorter sleeves, and being open in front. T he dress of the lower orders is the shirt and drawers, and waistcoat, with an outer shirt of blue cotton or brown woollen stuff; some wear a kaftan. The head-dress is the red cloth fez or tarbush round which a turban is usually worn. Men who have otherwise adopted European costume retain the tarbush. Many professions and religions, &c., are distinguished by the shape and colour of the turban, and various classes, and particularly servants, are marked by the form and colour of their shoes; but the poor go usually barefoot. Many ladies of the upper classes now dress in European style, with certain modifications, such as the head-veil. Those who retain native costume wear a very full pair of silk trousers, bright coloured stockings (usually pink), and a close-fitting vest with hanging sleeves and skirts, open down the front and at the sides, and long enough to turn up and fasten into the girdle, which is generally a cashmere shawl ; a cloth jacket, richly embroidered with gold, and having short sleeves, is commonly worn over the vest. The hair in front is combed down over the fore- head and cut across in a straight line ; behind it is divided into very many small plaits, which hang down the back, and are lengthened by silken cords, and often adorned with gold coins and ornaments. A small tarbush is worn on the back ofthe head, sometimes having a plate of gold fixed on the crown, and a handkerchief is tastefully bound round the temples. The women of the lower orders have trousers of printed or dyed cotton, and a close waistcoat. All wear the long and elegant head-veil. This is a simple " breadth " of muslin, which passes over the head and hangs down behind, one side, being drawn forward over the face in the presence of a man. A lady's veil is of white muslin, embroidered at the ends in gold and colours; that of a person of the lower class is simply dyed blue. In going abroad the ladies wear above their indoor dress a loose robe of coloured silk without sleeves, and nearly open at the sides, and above it a large enveloping piece of black silk, which is brought over the head, and gathered round the person by the arms and hands on each side. A face-veil entirely conceals the features, except the eyes; it is a long and narrow piece of thick white muslin, reaching to a little below the knees. The women of the lower orders have the same out-door dress of different materials and colour. Ladies use slippers of yellow morocco, and abroad, inner boots of the same material, above which they wear, in either case, thick shoes, having only toes. The poor wear red shoes, very like those of the men. "I he women, especially in Upper Egypt, not infrequently wear nose-rings. Children, though often neglected, are not unkindly treated, and reverence for their parents and the aged is early inculcated. They are also well grounded in the leading doctrines of Islam. Boys are circumcised at the age of five or six years, when the boy is paraded, generally with a bridal procession, on a gaily caparisoned horse and dressed in woman's clothes. Most parents send their boys to school where a knowledge of reading and writing Arabic — the common tongue of the Egyptians — is obtainable, and from the closing years of the i o.th century a great desire for the education of girls has arisen (see 5 Education). It is deemed disreputable for a young man not to marry when he has attained a sufficient age; there are, therefore, few unmarried men. Girls, in like manner, marry very young, some at ten years of age, and few remain single beyond the age of sixteen; they are generally very prolific. The bridegroom never sees his future wife before the wedding night, a custom rendered more tolerable than it otherwise might be by the facility of divorce. A dowry is always given, and a simple marriage ceremony performed by a fiki (a school- master, or one who recites the Koran, properly one learned in fiqh, Mahommedan law) in the presence of two witnesses. The bridal of a virgin is attended with great festivity and rejoicing, a grandee's EGYPT [MODERN: CUSTOMS wedding sometimes continuing eleven days and nights. On the last day, which should be that terminating with the eve of Friday, or of Monday, the bride is taken in procession to the bridegroom's house, accompanied by her female friends, and a band of musicians, jugglers, wrestlers, &c. As before stated, a boy about to be circumcised joins in such a procession, or, frequently, a succession of such boys. Though allowed by his religion four wives, most Egyptians are monogamists. A man may, however, possess any number of con- cubines, who, though objects of jealousy to the legal wife, are tolerated by her in consideration of her superior position and power over them, a power which she often uses with great tyranny; but certain privileges are possessed by concubines, especially if they have borne sons to their master. A divorce is rendered obligatory by the simple words " Thou art divorced." Repudiation may take place twice without being final, but if the husband repeats thrice " Thou art divorced " the separation is absolute. In that case the dowry must be returned to the wife. Elaborate ceremonies are observed at funerals. Immediately on death the corpse is turned towards Mecca, and the women of the household, assisted by hired mourners, commence their peculiar wailing, while fikis recite portions of the Koran. The funeral takes place on the day of the death, if that happen in the morning; other- wise on the next day. The corpse, having been washed and shrouded, is placed in an open bier, covered with a cashmere shawl, in the case of a man; or in a closed bier, having a post in front, on which are placed feminine ornaments, in that of a woman or child. The funeral procession is headed by a number of poor, and generally blind, men, chanting the profession of the faith, followed by male friends of the deceased, and a party of schoolboys, also chanting, generally from a poem descriptive of the state of the soul after death. Then follows the bier, borne on the shoulders of friends, who are relieved by the passers-by, such an act being deemed highly meritorious. Behind come the women relatives and the hired wallers. On the way to the cemetery the corpse is generally carried to some revered mosque. Here the funeral service is performed by the imam, and the pro- cession then proceeds to the tomb. In the burials of the rich, water and bread are distributed to the poor at the grave; and sometimes a buffalo or several buffaloes are slaughtered there, and the flesh given away. The tomb is a vault, surmounted by an oblong stone monument, with a stele at the head and feet; and a cupola, sup- ported by four walls, covers the whole in the case of sheikhs' tombs and those of the wealthy. During the night following the interment, called the Night of Desolation, or that of Solitude, the soul being believed to remain with the body that one night, fikis are engaged at the house of the deceased to recite various portions of the Koran, and, commonly, to repeat the first clause- of the profession of the faith, " There is no God but God," three thousand times. The women alone put on mourning attire, by dyeing their veils, shirts, &c., dark blue, with indigo; and they stain their hands, and smear the walls, with the same colour. Everything in the house is also turned upside down. The latter customs are not, however, observed on the death of an old man. At certain periods after the burial, a khatmeh, or recitation of the whole of the Koran, is performed, and the tomb is visited by the women relations and friends of the deceased. The women of the peasants of Upper Egypt perform strange dances, &c., at funerals, which are regarded partly as relics of ancient Egyptian customs. The harem system of appointing separate apartments to the women, and secluding them from the gaze of men, is observed in Egypt as in other Moslem countries, but less strictly. The women of an Egyptian household in which old customs are maintained never sit in the presence of the master, but attend him at his meals, and are treated in every respect as inferiors. The mother, however, forms a remarkable exception to this rule; in rare instances, also, a wife becomes a companion to her husband. On the other hand, if a pair of women's shoes are placed outside the door of the harem apartments, they are understood to signify that female visitors are within, and a man is sometimes thus excluded from the upper portion of his own house for many days. Ladies of the *ipper or middle classes lead a life of extreme inactivity, spending their time at the bath, which is the general place of gossip, or in receiving visits, embroidering, and the like, and in absolute dolce far niente. Both sexes are given to licentiousness. The principal meals are breakfast, about an hour after sunrise; dinner, or the mid-day meal, at noon; and supper, which is the chief meal of the day, a little after sunset. Pastry, sweetmeats and fruit are highly esteemed. Coffee is taken at all hours, and is, with a pipe, presented at least once to each guest. Tobacco is the great luxury of the men of all classes in Egypt, who begin and end the day with it, and generally smoke all day with little intermission. Many women, also, especially among the rich, adopt the habit. The smok- ing of hashish, though illegal, is indulged in by considerable numbers of people. Men who can afford to keep a horse, mule or ass are very seldom seen to walk. Ladies ride asses and sit astride. The poorer classes cannot fully observe the harem system, but the women are in general carefully veiled. Some of them keep small shops, and all fetch water, make fuel, and cook for their households. Domestic slavery lingers but is moribund. The majority of the slaves are negresses employed in household duties. In social intercourse the Egyptians observe many forms of salu- tation and much etiquette ; they are very affable, and readily enter into conversation with strangers. Their courtesy and dignity of manner are very striking, and are combined with ease and a fluency of discourse. They have a remarkable quickness of apprehension, a ready wit, a retentive memory, combined, however, with religious pride and hypocrisy, and a disregard for the truth. Their common discourse is full of asseverations and expressions respecting sacred things. They entertain reverence for their Prophet ; and the Koran is treated with the utmost resgect — never, for example, being placed in a low situation — and this is the case with everything they esteem holy. They are fatalists, and bear calamities with surprising resig- nation. Their filial piety and respect for the aged have been men- tioned, and benevolence and charity are conspicuous in their char- acter. Humanity to animals is another virtue, and cruelty is openly discountenanced in the streets. Their affability, cheerfulness and hospitality are remarkable, as well as frugality and temperance in food and drink, and honesty in the payment of debt. Their cupidity is mitigated by generosity; their natural indolence by the necessity, especially among the peasantry, to work hard to gain a livelihood. Egyptians, however, are as a rule suspicious of all not of their own creed and country. Murders and other grave crimes are rare, but petty larcenies are very common. The amusements of the people are generally not of a violent kind, being in keeping with their sedentary habits and the heat of the climate. The bath is a favourite resort of both sexes and all classes. They are acquainted with chess, draughts, backgammon, and other games, among which is one peculiar to themselves, called Mankalah, and played with cowries. Notwithstanding its condemnation by Mahomet, music is the most favourite recreation of the people ; the songs of the boatmen, the religious chants, and the cries in the streets are all musical. There are male and female musical per- formers; the former are both instrumental and vocal, the latter (called 'Almeh, pi. 'Awalim) generally vocal. The 'Awalim are, as their name (" learned ") implies, generally accomplished women, and should not be confounded with the Ghawazi, or dancing-girls. There are many kinds of musical instruments. The music, vocal and instrumental, is generally of little compass, and in the minor key; it is therefore plaintive, and strikes a European ear as some- what monotonous, though often possessing a simple beauty, and the charm of antiquity, for there is little doubt that the favourite airs have been handed down from remote ages. The Ghawazi (sing. Ghazla) form a separate class, very similar to the gipsies. They inter- marry among themselves only, and their women are professional dancers. Their performances are often objectionable and are so regarded by many Egyptians. They dance in public, at fairs and religious festivals, and at private festivities, but, it is said, not in respectable houses. Mehemet AH banished them to Esna, in Upper Egypt; and the few that remained in Cairo called themselves •Awalim, to avoid punishment. Many of the dancing-girls of Cairo to-day are neither 'Awalim nor Ghawazi, but women of the very lowest class whose performances are both ungraceful and indecent. A most objectionable class of male dancers also exists, who imitate the dances of the Ghawazi, and dress in a kind of nondescript female attire. Not the least curious of the public performances are those of the serpent-charmers, who are generally Rifa'ia (Saadia) dervishes. Their power over serpents has been doubted, yet their performances remain unexplained; they, however, always extract the fangs of venomous serpents. Jugglers, rope-dancers and farce-players must also be mentioned. In the principal coffee-shops of Cairo are to be found reciters of romances, surrounded by interested audiences. The periodical public festivals are exceedingly interesting, but many of the remarkable observances connected with them are passing away. The first ten days of the Mahommedan year are held to be blessed, and especially the tenth; and many curious practices are observed on these days, particularly by the women. The tenth day, being the anniversary of the martyrdom of Hosain, the son of Ali and grandson of the Prophet, the mosque of the Hasanen at Cairo is thronged to excess, mostly by women. In the evening a procession goes to the mosque, the principal figure being a white horse with white trappings, upon which is seated a small boy, the horse and the lad, who represents Hosain, being smeared with blood. From the mosque the procession goes to a private house, where a mullah recites the story of the martyr- dom. Following the order of the lunar year, the next festival is that of the Return of the Pilgrims, which is the occasion of great rejoicing, many having friends or relatives in the caravan. The Mahmal, a kind of covered litter, first originated by Queen Sheger-ed-Dur, is brought into the city in procession, though not with as much pomp as when it leaves with the pilgrims. These and other processions have lost much of their effect since the extinction of the Mamelukes, and the gradual disuse of gorgeous dress for the retainers of the officers of state. A regiment of regular infantry makes but a sorry substitute for the splendid cavalcade of former times. The Birth of the Prophet (Mohd en-Nebi), which is celebrated in the beginning of the third month, is the greatest festival of the whole year. For nine days and nights Cairo has more the aspect of a fair than of a city keeping a religious festival. The chief ceremonies take place in some large open spot round which are erected the tents of the khedive, of great state officials, and of the dervishes. Next in time, and also in importance, is the Molid El-Hasanen, commemorative Public festivals. MODERN USANCE) EGYPT 33 of the birth of Hoaain. and lasting fifteen days and nights; and at ime time is kept the MolUl ol al-!>ilil.i \\ yub. the last sovereign but two of the Ayyubite dynasty. In the seventh month occur MoUd of the sayyida Zenab, and the commemoration of the Miarig. or the Prophet's miraculous journey to heaven. Early in the eighth month (Sha'bun), the Molid of the imam Shafi'i is ob- served; ami the night of the middle of that month has its peculiar customs, being held by the Moslems to be that on which the fate of all living is decided for the ensuing year. Then follows Ramadan, the month of abstinence, a severe trial to the faithful; and the Festival (Al-'id as-saghir), which commences Shawwal, is ,J by them with delight. A few days after, the Kiswa, or new covering for the Ka'ba at Mecca, is taken in procession from the citadel, where it is always manufactured, to the mosque of the Hasanen to be completed; and, later, the caravan of pilgrims departs, when the grand procession of the Mahmal takes place. On (he tenth day of the last month of the year the Great Festival . I al-kabir),or that of the Sacrifice (commemorating the willing- ness of Ibrahim to slay his son Ismail — according to the Arab legend), doses the calendar. The Lesser and Great Festivals arc those known in Turkish as the Bairam (q.f.). The rise of the Nile is naturally the occasion of annual customs, •one of which are doubtless relics of antiquity : these are observed according to the Coptic calendar. The commencement of the rise is commemorated on the night of the nth of Baflna, the 171)1 of June, called that of the Drop (Lelet-en-Nukta), because a miraculous drop is then supposed to fall and cause the swelling of the river. The real rise begins at Cairo about the summer solstice, or a few day* later, and early in July a crier in each district of the city begins to go his daily rounds, announcing, in a quaint chant, the increase of water in the nilometer of the island of Roda. When the river has risen 20 or 21 ft., he proclaims the Wefa en-Nil, " Completion " or " Abundance of the Nile." On the following day the dam which closed the canal of Cairo was cut with much ceremony. The canal having been filled up in 1897 the ceremony has been much modified, but a brief description of what used to take place may be given. A pillar of earth before the dam is called the " Bride of the Nile," and Arab historians relate that this was substituted, at the Moslem conquest, for a virgin whom it was the custom annually to sacrifice, to ensure a plentiful inundation. A large boat, gaily decked out, representing that in which the victim used to be conveyed, was anchored near, and a gun on board fired every quarter of an hour during the night. Rockets and other fireworks were also let off, but the best, strangely, after daybreak. The governor of Cairo attended the ceremony, with the cadi and others, and gave the signal for the cutting of the dam. As soon as sufficient water had entered, boats ascended the canal to the city. The crier continues .lily rounds, with his former chant, excepting on the Coptic New Year's Day, when the cry of the WefS is repeated, until the Salib, or Discovery of the Cross, the 26th or 27th of September, at which period, the river having attained its greatest height, he con- cludes his annual employment with another chant, and presents to each bouse some limes and other fruit, and dry lumps of Nile mud. The period of the hot winds, called the khamsin, that is, " the fifties,' is calculated from the day after the Coptic Easter, and ter- minates on the day of Pentecost, and the Moslems observe the Wednesday preceding this period, called " Job's Wednesday," as well as its first day, when many go into the country from Cairo, " to smell the air. ' This day is hence called Shem en-Nesim, or " the smelling of the zephyr." The L'lema observe the same custom on the first three days of the spring quarter. Tombs of saints abound, one or more being found in every town and village; and no traveller up the Nile can fail to remark how every prominent hill has the sepulchre of its patron saint. The great saints of Egypt arc the imam Ash-Sh3fi'i, founder of the per- suasipn called after him, the sayvid Ahmad al-Baidawi, and the sayyid Ibrahim Ed-Desuki, both of whom were founders of orders of dervishe*. Al-Baidawi, who lived in the l«h century A.D., is buried at the town of Jama, in the Delta, and his tomb attracts many -"s of visitors at each of the three festivals held yearly in his Ed-Desuki is also much revereti, and his festivals draw T, in like manner, great crowds to his birthplace, the town ik. But, besides the graves of her native saints, Egypt boasts those of several members of the Prophet's family, the tomb of the sayyida Zeyneb, daughter of 'AH, that of the sayyida Sekeina, daughter of Hosain, and that of the sayyida Nefisa, great-grand- daughter of Hasan, all of which are held in high veneration. The D«que of the Hasanen (or that of the " two Hasans ") is the most reverenced shrine in the country, and is believed to contain the bead of Hosain. Many orders of Dervishes live in Egypt, the following being the most celebrated:— (i) the Rifa'ia. and their sects the 'llwinia and Saadia; (2) the Qadiria (Kahiria), or howling dervishes; (t) the Ahmedia, or followers of the sayyid Abmad al- Baidawi. and their sects the BeyQmia (known by their long hair), >hinnawta. Snarawia and many others; and (4) the Baramia, or followers of the sayvid Ibrahim Ed-Desuki. These are all presided oyej by a direct descendant of the caliph Abu Bekr, called the •etkh EI-Bekn. The Saadia are famous for charming and eating e serpents, Ac., and the 'Ilwania for eating fire, glass. &c. The Efyptiant firmly believe in the efficacy of charms, a belief associated IX. 3 with that in an omnipresent and over-ruling providence. Thus the doors of houses are inscribed with sentences from the Koran, or the like, to preserve from the evil eye, or avert the dangers of an unlucky threshold; similar inscriptions may be observed over most shops, while almost every one carries some charm about his person. The so-called sciences of magic, astrology and alchemy still flourish. AUTHORITIES. — The standard authority for the Moslem Egyptians is E. W. Lane's Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, first published in 1836. The best edition is that of 1860, edited, with additions, by E. S. Poole. See also B. Saint-John, Village Life in Ktyfl (2 vols., 1852); S. Lane Poole, Social Life in Egypt (1884); P. Arminjon, L'Enseignement, la doctrine, etlavie dans les universitts musulmanes d'Egypte (Paris, 1907). For the language see J. S. Willmore, The Spoken Arabic of Egypt (2nd ed., London, 1905); Spin. i Bey, Grammatik des arabischen Vulgardialektes von Agypten, Contes arabes modernes (Leiden, 1883). For statistical information consult the reports on the censuses of 1897 a"d 1907, published by the Ministry of the Interior, Cairo, in 1898 and 1909. (E.S. P.; S. L.-P.; F. R. C.) Finance. The important part which the financial arrangements have played in the political and social history of Egypt since 'the accession of Ismail Pasha in 1863 is shown in the section History of this article. Here it is proposed to trace the steps by which Egypt, after having been brought to a state of bankruptcy, passed through a period of great stress, and finally attained prosperity and a large measure of financial autonomy. In 1862 the foreign debt of Egypt stood at £3,292,000. With the accession of Ismail (q.v.) there followed a period of wild extravagance and reckless borrowing accompanied by the extortion of every piastre possible from the fellahin. The real state of affairs was disclosed in the report of Mr Stephen Cave, a well-known banker, who was sent by the British government in December 1875 to inquire into the situation. The Cave report showed that Egypt suffered from " the ignorance, dis- honesty, waste and extravagance of the East " and from " the vast expense caused by hasty and inconsiderate endeavours to adopt the civilization of the West." The debtor and creditor account of the state from 1864 to 1875 showed receipts amounting to £148,215,000. Of this sum over £94,000,000 had been obtained from revenue and nearly £4,000,000 by the sale of the khedive's shares in the Suez Canal to Great Britain. The rest was credited to: loans £31,713,000, floating debt £18,243,000. The cash which reached the Egyptian treasury from the loans and floating debt was far less than the nominal amount of such loans, none of which cost the Egyptian government less than 12% per annum. When the expenditure during the same period was examined the extraordinary fact was disclosed that the sum raised by revenue was only three millions less than that spent on' administration, tribute and public works, including a sum °f f.loiS°°,ooo, described as " expenses of questionable utility or policy." The whole proceeds .of the loans and floating debt had been absorbed in payment of interest and sinking funds, with the exception of £16,000,000 debited to the Suez Canal. In other words, Egypt was burdened with a debt of £91,000,000 — funded or floating — for which she had no return, for even from the Suez Canal she derived no revenue, owing to the sale of the khedive's shares. Soon after Mr Cave's report appeared (March 1876), default took place on several of the loans. Nearly the whole of the debt, it should be stated, was held in England or France, and at the instance of French financiers the stoppage of payment was followed by a scheme to unify the debt. This scheme included the distribution of a bonus of 25% to holders of treasury bonds. These bonds had then reached a sum exceeding £20,000,000 and were held chiefly by French firms. The unification scheme was elaborated in a khedivial decree of the 7th of May 1876, but was rendered abortive by the opposition of the British bondholders. Its place was taken by another scheme drawn up by Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M. Joubert, who represented the British and French bondholders respectively. The details of this settlement, promulgated by decree of the tyth of November 1876, need not be given, as it was superseded in 1880. One of the securities devised for the benefit of the bond- holders in the abortive scheme of May 1876 was retained in the 34 EGYPT [MODERN: FINANCE Goschen-Joubert settlement, and being continued in later settle- ments grew to be one of the most important institutions in Egypt. This security was the establishment of a Treasury of the Public Debt, known by its French title of Caisse de la Dette, and commonly spoken of simply as " the Caisse." The duty of this body was to act as receivers of the revenues assigned to the service of the debt. To render their powers effective they were given the right to sue the Egyptian government in the Mixed Tribunals for any breach of engagement to the bondholders. The Goschen-Joubert settlement was accompanied by guar- antees against maladministration by the appointment of an Englishman and a Frenchman to superintend the Lj'wfdi? °/revenue and expenditure — the "Dual Control"; Ooa. ' while a commission was appointed in 1878 to investi- gate the condition of the country. The settlement of 1880 was effected on the basis of the proposals made by this commission, and was embodied in the Law of Liquidation of July 1880 — after the deposition of Ismail. For the purposes of the new settlement the loans raised by Ismail on his private estates, those known as the Daira (i.e. " administrations ") and Domains loans, were brought into account. By the Law of Liquidation the floating debt was paid off, the whole debt being consolidated into four large loans, upon which the rate of interest was reduced to a figure which it was considered Egypt was able to bear. The Egyptian debt under this composition was: Privileged debt . Unified debt Daira Sanieh loan Domains loan £22,609,000 58,018,000 9,513,000 8,500,000 £98,640,000 The rate of interest was, on the Privileged debt and Domains loan, 5%; on the Unified debt and Daira loan, 4%. Under this settlement the total annual charges on the country amounted to £4,500,000, about half the then revenue of Egypt. These charges included the services of the Privileged and Unified debts, the tribute to Turkey and the interest on the Suez Canal shares held by Great Britain, but excluded the interest on the Daira and Domains loans, expected to be defrayed by the revenues from the estates on which those loans were secured. The general revenue of Egypt was divided between the bond- holders and the government, any surplus on the bondholders' share being devoted to the redemption of the capital. The 1880 settlement proved little more lasting than that of 1876. After a brief period of prosperity, the Arabi rising, the riots at Alexandria, and the events generally which led to the British occupation of Egypt in 1882, followed by the losses incurred in the Sudan in the fffort to prevent it falling into the hands of the Mahdi, brought Egypt once more to the verge of financial disaster. The situation was an anomalous one. While the revenue assigned to the service of the debt was more than sufficient for the payment of interest and the sinking fund was in full operation, the government found that their share of the revenue was altogether inadequate for the expenses of administra- tion, and they were compelled to borrow on short loans at high rate of interest. Moreover, to make good the losses incurred at Alexandria, and to get money to pay the charges arising out of the Sudan War and the Arabi rebellion, a new loan was essential. On the initiative of Great Britain a conference between the representatives of the great powers and Turkey was held in London, and resulted in the signing of a convention in March 1885. The terms agreed upon in this instrument, known as the London Convention, were embodied in a khedivial decree, which, with some modification in detail, remained for twenty years the organic law under which the finances of Egypt were administered. The principle of dividing the revenue of the country between the Caisse, as representing the bondholders, and the government was maintained by the London Convention. The revenue assigned to the service of the debt, namely, that derived from the railway, telegraphs, port of Alexandria, customs (including tobacco) and from four of the provinces, remained as befere. It was recognized, however, that the non-assigned revenue was insufficient to meet the necessary expenses of govern- provisloat ment, and a scale of administrative expenditure was ottbe drawn up. This was originally fixed at ££.5,237,000,* London but subsequently other items were allowed, and ^°^ven" in 1904, the last year in which the system described existed, it was ££.6,300,600. The Caisse was authorized, after payment of the coupons on the debt, to make good out of their balance in hand the difference between the authorized expenditure and the non-assigned revenue. If a surplus remained to the Caisse after making good such deficit the surplus was to be divided equally between the Caisse and the government; the government to be free to spend its share as it pleased, while the Caisse had to devote its share to the reduc- tion of the debt. This limitation of administrative expenditure was the cardinal feature and the leading defect of the convention. Those responsible for this arrangement — the most favourable for Egypt that Great Britain could secure — failed to recognize the complete change likely to result from the British occupation of Egypt, and probably regarded that occupation as temporary. The system devised might have been justifiable as a check on a retrograde government, but was wholly inapplicable to a reform- ing government and a serious obstacle to the attainment of national prosperity. In practice administrative expenditure always exceeded the amount fixed by the convention. Any excess could, however, only be met out of the half-share of the eventual surplus reached in the manner described. Consequently, in order to meet new expenditure necessitated by the growing wants of a country in process of development, just double the amount of revenue had to be raised. To return to the provisions of the London Convention. The convention left the permanent rate of interest on the debt, as fixed by the Law of Liquidation, unchanged, but to afford temporary relief to the Egyptian exchequer a reduction of 5% on the interest of the debt was granted for two years, on condition that if at the end of that period payment, including the arrears of the two years, was not resumed in full, another international commission was to be appointed to examine into the whole financial situation. Lastly, the convention empowered Egypt to raise a loan of nine millions, guaranteed by all the powers, at a rate of interest of 3 %. For the service of this loan — known as the Guaranteed loan — an annuity of £315,000 was provided in the Egyptian budget for interest and sinking fund. The £9,000,000 was sufficient to pay the Alexandria indemnities, to wipe out the deficits of the preceding years, to give the Egyptian treasury a working balance of ££.500,000 and thereby avoid the creation of a fresh floating debt, and to provide a million for new irrigation works. To the wise foresight which, at a moment when the country was sinking beneath a weight of debt, did not hesitate to add this million for expenditure on productive works, the present prosperity of Egypt is largely due. The provisions of the London Convention did not exhaust the restrictions placed upon the Egyptian government in respect of financial autonomy. These restrictions were of two categories, (i) those independent of the London Convention, (2) those dependent upon that instrument. In the first category came (a) the prohibition to raise a loan without the consent of the Porte. The right to raise loans had been granted to the khedive Ismail in 1873, but was taken away in 1879 by the firman appoint- ing Tewfik khedive. (b) Next came the inability to levy taxes on foreigners without the consent of their respective governments. This last obligation was, in virtue of the Capitulations, applicable to Egypt as part of the Ottoman empire. The only exception, resulting from the Ottoman law under which foreigners are allowed to acquire and hold real property, is the land tax. (All taxes formerly paid by natives and not by foreigners have been abolished in Egypt, but the immunity described constitutes a most serious obstacle to the redistribution of the burden of taxation in a more equitable manner.) 'The figures of the debt are always given in £ sterling. The budget figures are in £E. (pounds Egyptian), equal to £i, os. 6d. MODERN: FINANCE) EGYPT 35 From the purely Egyptian point of view the most powerful restriction in this first category remains to be named. In 1883 the supervision exercised over the finances by French and British controllers was replaced by that of a British official called the financial adviser. The British government has declared that " no financial decision shall be taken without his consent," a declaration never questioned by the Egyptian government. This restriction, therefore, is at the same time the chief safeguard for the purity of Egypt's finances. In the second category of restrictions, namely, those dependent on the London Convention, were the various commissions or boards known as Mixed Administrations and having relations of a quasi -independent character with the ministry of finance. Of these boards by far the most important was the Caisse. As first constituted it consisted of a French, an Austrian, and an Italian member; a British member was added in 1877 and a German and a Russian member in 1885. The revenue assigned to the debt charges was paid direct to the Caisse without passing through the ministry of finance. The assent of the Caisse (as well as that of the sultan) was necessary before any new loan could be issued, and in the course of a few years from its creation this body acquired very extensive powers. Besides the Caisse there was the Railway Board, which administered the railways, telegraphs and port of Alexandria for the benefit of the bondholders, and the Dalra and Domains commissions, which administered the estates mortgaged to the holders of those loans. Each of the three boards lust named consisted of an Englishman, a Frenchman and an Egyptian. During the two years that followed the signing of the London Convention, the financial policy of the Egyptian government was n» ran directed to placing the country in a position to resume «prtu* full payment of the interest on the debt in 1887, and *••*• thereby to avoid the appointment of an international "**>• commission. By the exercise of the most rigid economy in all branches this end was attained, though budgetary equi- librium was only secured by a variety of financial expedients, justified by the vital importance of saving Egypt from further international interference. By such means this additional complication was averted, but the struggle to put Egypt in a genuinely solvent position was by no means over. It was not until his report on the financial results of 1888 that Sir Evelyn Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer) was able to inform the British government that the situation was such that " it would take a •cries of untoward events seriously to endanger the stability of Egyptian finance and the solvency of the Egyptian government." From this moment the corner was turned, and the era of financial prosperity commenced. The results of the labours of the preced- ing six years Jxgan to manifest themselves with a rapidity which surprised the most sanguine observers. The principal feature of the successive Egyptian budgets of 1890-1894 was the fiscal relief afforded to the population. From 1894 onward more attention was paid than bad hitherto been possible to the legitimate demands of the spending departments and to the prosecution of public works. Of these the most notable was the construction (1898-1902) of the Assuan dam, which by bringing Bore land under cultivation permanently increased the resources of the country and widened the area of taxation. With the accumulating proofs of the financial stability of the country various changes were made in connexion with the debt Jterty- of Egypt to tax foreigners without their consent nor remove the right of Turkey to veto the issue of new loans, but in other respects the financial changes made by it were of a radical character. The main effect was to give to the Egyptian government a free hand in the disposal of its own resources so long as the punctual payment of interest on the debt was assured. The plan devised by the London Convention of fixing a limit to administrative expenditure was abolished. The consent of the Caisse to the raising of a new loan was no longer required. The Caisse itself remained, but shorn of all political and adminis- trative powers, its functions being strictly limited to receiving the assigned revenues and to ensuring the due payment of the coupon. The nature of the assigned revenue was altered, the land tax being substituted for those previously assigned, that tax being chosen as it had a greater character of stability than any other source of revenue. By this means Egypt gained com- plete control of its railways, telegraphs, the port of Alexandria and the customs, and as a consequence the mixed administration known as the Railway Board ceased to exist. Moreover, it was provided that when the Caisse had received from the land tax the amount needed for the service of the debt, the balance of the tax was to be paid direct to the Egyptian treasury. The Con- version Economies Fund was also placed at the free disposal of the Egyptian government. The General Reserve Fund ceased to exist, but for the better security of the bondholders a reserve fund of £1,800,000 was constituted and left in the hands of the Caisse to be used in the highly improbable event of the land tax being insufficient to meet the debt charges. Moreover, the Caisse started under the new arrangement with a cash balance of £1,250,000. The interest of the money lying in the hands of the Caisse goes towards meeting the debt charges and thus reduces the amount needed from the land tax. The bondholders gained a further material advantage by the consent of the Egyptian government to delay the conversion of the loans, which under previous arrangements they would have been free to do in 1905. It was agreed that there should be no con- version of the Guaranteed or Privileged debts before 1910 and no conversion of the Unified debt until 1912. Such were the chief provisions of the khedivial decree, and in 1905, for the first time, it was possible to draw up the Egyptian budget in accord- ance with the needs of the country and on perfectly sound principles. In the system adopted in 1905 and since maintained, recurring and non-recurring expenditure were shown separately, the non-recurring expenditure being termed " special." At the same time a new General Reserve Fund was created, made up chiefly of the surpluses of the old -General Reserve, Special Reserve, and Conversion Economies funds. This new fund started with a capital of £i3,376,ooo and was replenished by the surpluses of subsequent years, by the interest earned by its temporary investment, and by the sums accruing by the liquidation of the Dai'ra and Domains loans. During 1905 and 10,06 about £3,000,000 was paid into the fund through the liquidation of the Dai'ra loan. From this fund, which had a balance of over £12,000,000 in 1906, is taken capital expendi- ture on remunerative public works in Egypt and the Sudan, and while the fund lasts the necessity for any new loan is avoided. The greater freedom of action attained as the result of the Anglo-French declaration of 1904 enabled the Egyptian government to advance simultaneously along the lines of fiscal reform and increased ad- ministrative expenditure. Thus in 1906 the salt monopoly was abolished at a cost to the revenue of £175,000, while the reduction of import duties on coal and other fuels, live-stock, &c., involved a further loss of £118,000, and an increase of over £1,000,000 in expenditure was budgeted for. The accounts for 1907 showed a total revenue of ££.16,368,000 and a total expenditure of ££.14,280,000, a surplus of £E.2,o88,ooo. The annual growth of revenue for the previous five years averaged over ££.500,000. About one-third of the annual revenue is derived from the land tax ; customs and tobacco duties yield about £3,000,000, and an equal or larger amount is received from railways and other revenue-earning departments. The chief items of ordinary expenditure are tribute and debt charges, the expenses of the civil administration, of the Egyptian army (between £500,000 and £600,000 yearly), of the revenue-earning departments and of pensions. It will be convenient here to summarize the position of the Egyptian debt at the close of 1905, that is at the period immediately following the liquidation of the Dai'ra loan. In a previous table it has been shown that under the Law of Liquidation of 1880 the total debt was £98,640,000. In 1883, the first complete year after the British occupation, the capital of the debt — then exclusively held by the public — was £96,457,000. In 1885 the Guaranteed loan, the nominal capital of which was £9,424,000, was issued, and in 1891 the debt reached its maximum figure of £106,802,000. At that period the charge for interest and sinking fund was £4,127,000. On the 3 1st of December 1905 the total capital of the debt was as. follows : — Guaranteed 3% £7,849,000 Preference 3}% 31,128,000 Unified 4% 55,972,000 Domains 4J% 1,535.000 Total - . £96,484,000 The charge on account of interest and sinking fund was £3,709,000. Thus the capital of the debt in 1905 stood at almost the exact figure it did in 1883, although by borrowing and conversion operations nearly £17,000,000 had in the meantime been added to the capital. This reduction was brought about by surplus revenue, and by the operation of the sinking fund in the case of the Guaranteed loan, while £15,729,000 had been wiped out by the sale of Dai'ra and Domains property. These figures do not, however, indicate fully the prosperity of the country, for although the nominal amount of the capital was practically identical in 1883 and 1905, in the latter year the Egyptian government or the Caisse held stock (bought with surplus revenue) to the value of £8,770,000. The amount of debt in the hands of the public was therefore only £87,714,000, that is to say £8,743,000 less than in 1883, while the interest charge to be borne by the taxpayer of Egypt was £3,378,000, being £890,000 less than in 1 883. The charge amounts to about 40 % of the national expenditure. On the other hand, Egypt is not now weighed down with a huge warlike expenditure. There is no navy to support, and the army costs but 7 % of the total expenditure. AUTHORITIES. — A concise view of the financial situation in 1877 will be found in J. C. McCoan's Egypt as it is (London n.d.). Mr Cave's report is printed in an appendix. The subsequent history of Egyptian finance is told in the following blue-books, &c. : Correspondence respecting the State Domains of Egypt (1883); State- ment of the Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of the Egyptian Bonds and the Charges for their Services (1885); MODERN: ARMY] EGYPT •37 Rrporti on On Finantts of Eryft. by the British agent, yearly from 1888: Comntien . . . rtlatmt to Uu Finance of Ktyft. titned at London, Uarck 18. 1885 ; Kktdmai decree of Ike tStn November 1904 ; Comfit gMrol it I" administration det finances, issued yearly at Cairo. Consult also the works of Lord Cromer, Lord Milner, and Sir A. Cols in cited under { History, last section. (E. Go. ; F. R. C.) Tke Egyptian Army. The fellah soldier has been aptly likened to a bicycle, which Although incapable of standing up alone, is very useful while under the control of a skilful master. It is generally believed that the successes gained in the time of the Pharaohs were due to foreign legions; and from Cambyses to Alexander, from the Ptolemies to Antony (Cleo- patra). from Augustus to the ;th century, throughout the Arab period, and from Saladin's dynasty down to the middle of the I3th century, the military power of Egypt was dependent on mercenaries. The Mamelukes (slaves), imported from the eastern borders of the Black Sea and then trained as soldiers, usurped the government of Egypt, and held it till 1517, when the Ottomans began to rule. This form of government, speaking generally, endured till the French invasion at the end of the iSth century. British and Turkish troops drove the French out after an occupation of two years, the British troops remaining till 1803. Then Mehemet Ali. a small tobacconist of Kavala, Macedonia, coming with Albanian mercenaries, made himself governor, and later (1811), by massacring the Mamelukes, became the actual master of the country, and after seven years' war brought Arabia under Egypt's rule. He subdued Nubia and Sennar in 1820-22; and then, requiring a larger army, he obtained instructors from France. To them were handed over 1000 Turks and Circassians to be trained as officers, who later took command of 30,000 Sudanese. These died so rapidly in Egypt from pneumonia1 that Mehemet Ali conscripted over 250,000 fellahin, and in so arbitrary a fashion that many peasants mutilated themselves to avoid the much-dreaded service. The common practice was to place a small piece of nitrate of silver into the eye, which was then kept tightly bandaged till the sight was destroyed. Battalions were then formed of one-eyed men, and of soldiers who, having cut off their right-hand fingers, were made to shoot from the left shoulder. Every man who could not purchase exemption, with the exception of those living in Cairo, Alexandria and Suez, on becoming 19 years old was liable nominally to 12 years' service; but many men were kept for 30 or 40 years, in spite of constant appeals. Nevertheless the experiment succeeded. The docile, yet robust and hardy peasants, under their foreign leaders, gained an unbroken series of successes in the first Syrian War; and after the bloody battle of Konia (1832), where the raw Turkish army was routed and the grand vitier taken prisoner, it was only European intervention which prevented the Egyptian general, Ibrahim Pasha, from marching unopposed to the Bosphorus. The defeat of the Turkish army •t Nizib (Nezeeb or Nisib), in the second Syrian War (1839), showed that it was possible to obtain favourable military results with Egyptians when stiffened by foreigners and well commanded. Ibrahim, the hero of Konia, declared, however, that no native Egyptian ought to rise higher than the rank of sergeant; and in the Syrian campaigns nearly all the officers were Turks or Circassians, as were several non-commissioned officers. In the cavalry and artillery many of the privates were foreigners, numbers of the janissaries who escaped the massacre at Stamboul (1832) having joined Mehemet All's army. In the reign of Abbas, who succeeded Mehemet Ali, the Egyptian troops were driven from Nejd, and the Wahhabi state recovered its independence. The next viceroy, Said, began •J an ardent soldier, but took to agriculture, and at his death (1863) 3000 men only were retained under arms. Ismail, on succeeding, immediately added 27,000 men, and in seven years was able to put 100,000 men, well equipped, in the field. He sent 10,000 men to help to suppress a rebellion in Crete, and 1 Similar mortality, though on a smaller scale, recurred in 1889, when Sudanese battalions coming from Sualcin were detained temporarily in Cairo. conquered the greater part of the (Nile) Sudan; but an ev pcdition of 11,000 men, sent to Abyssinia under Prince Hasan and Rateb Pasha, well equipped with guns and all essentials, was, in two successive disasters (1875 and 1876), practically destroyed. The education of Egyptians in continental cities had not produced the class of leaders who led the fellahin to victory at Konia. Ismail's exactions from the Egyptian peasantry reacted on the army, causing discontent; and when he was tottering on the throne he instigated military demonstrations against his own government, and, by thus sapping the foundations of discipline, assisted Arabi's revolution; the result was the battle of Tell el-Kebir, the British occupation, and the disbandmcnt of the army, which at that time in Egypt proper consisted of 18,000 men. Ismail had collected 500 field-guns, 200 Arm- strong cannon, and had created factories of warlike and other stores. These latter were conducted extravagantly, and badly administered. In January 1883, Major-General Sir Evelyn Wood, V.C., was given £200,000, and directed to spend it in raising a fellahin force of 6000 men for the defence of Egypt. He was assisted at first by 26 officers, amongst whom were /,iitio"~ two who later became successively sirdars — Colonel F. Grenfell, commanding a brigade, and Lieutenant H. Kitchener, R.E., second in command of the cavalry regiment. There were four batteries, eight battalions, and a camel company. Each battalion of the ist infantry brigade had three British mounted officers, Turks and Egyptians holding the corresponding positions in the battalions of the 2nd Brigade. The sirdar selected these native officers from those of Arabi's followers who had been the least prominent in the recent mutiny; non-commissioned officers who had been drill-instructors in the old army were recalled temporarily, but all the privates were conscripted from their villages. The earlier merciless practice had been in theory abolished by a decree based on the German system, published in 1880; but owing to defective organization, and internal disturbances induced by Khedive Ismail's follies, the law had not been applied, and the 6000 recruits collected at Cairo in January 1883 represented the biggest and strongest peasants who could not purchase exemption by bribing the officials concerned. The difficulties experienced in applying the 1880 decree were great, but the perseverance of British officers gave the oppressed peasants, in 1885, an equitable law, which has been since improved by the decree of rooo. General considera- tions later caused the sirdar to allow exemption by payment of (Badalia) £20 before ballot. This tax, which is popular amongst the peasantry, produced in 1906 ££.150,000, and over £250,000 in 1908. This is a marked indication of the increasing prosperity of the fellahin. A portion of the badalia is expended in the betterment of the soldier's position. He is no longer drafted into the police on completing his army service, but goes free at the end of five years with a gift of ££.20. The sirdar is allowed, moreover, to use £20,000 per annum of the badalia for the improvement of the education of the rank and file. . As an experiment the police is now a voluntary service, except in Alexandria and Cairo, for which cities peasants are conscripted for the police under army conditions. The recruiting super- intending committee, travelling through districts, supervise every ballot, and work under stringent rules which render systematic bribery difficult. The recruits who draw unlucky numbers at 19 years of age are seldom called up till they are 23, when they are summoned by name and escorted by a police- man to Cairo. To prevent substitution on the journey each recruit wears a string girdle sealed in lead. The periods of service are: with the colours, 5 years; in the reserve, 5 years, during which time they may be called up for police service, manoeuvres, &c. The pay is ££.3, 143. per annum for all services, and the liberal scale of rations of meat, bread and rice remains as before in theory, but in practice the value of pay and food received is greatly enhanced. So also with the pension and promotion regulations. They were in 1882 sufficiently liberal on paper, but had never been carried into effect. EGYPT [MODERN: ARMY • The efforts of 48 American officers, who under Gen. C. P. Stone zealously served Ismail, had entirely failed to overcome Egyptian venality and intrigue; and in spite of the military schools, with a comprehensive syllabus, the only perceptible difference between the Egyptian officer and private in 1879 consisted, according to one of the Americans, in the fact that the first was the product of the harem, and the second of the field. Marshal Marmont, writing in 1839, mentions the capacity of the Egyptians for endurance; and it was tested in 1883, especially in the and Brigade, since its officers (Turks and Egyptians), anxious to excel as drill-masters, worked their men not only from morn till eve, but also by lamplight in the corridors of the barracks. On the 3ist March 1883, ten weeks after the arrival of the first draft of recruits, about 5600 men went through the ceremonial parade movements as practised by the British guards in Hyde Park, with unusual precision. The British officers had acquired the words of command in Turkish, as used in the old army, an attempt to substitute Egyptian words having failed owing to lack of crisp, sharp-sounding words. As the Egyptian brigadier, who had spent some years in Berlin, spoke German fluently, and it was also understood by the senior British officers, that language was used for all commands given by the sirdar on that special parade. The British drill-book, minus about one- third of the least serviceable movements, was translated by an English officer, and by 190x5 every necessary British official book had been published in English and Arabic, except the new Recruiting Law (1885) and a manufacturing manual, for which French and Arabic editions are in use. The discipline of the old army had been regulated by a translation of part of the Code Napoleon, which was inadequate for an Eastern army, and the sirdar replaced it by the British Army Act of 1881, slightly modified, and printed in Arabic. The task undertaken by the small body of British officers was difficult. There was not one point in the former administra- tion of the army acceptable to English gentlemen. That there had been no adequate auxiliary departments, without which an army cannot move or be efficient, was comparatively a minor difficulty. To succeed, it was essential that the fellah should be taught that discipline might be strict without being oppressive, that pay and rations would be fairly distributed, that brutal usage by superiors would be checked, that complaints would be thoroughly investigated, and impartial justice meted out to soldiers of all ranks. An epidemic of cholera in the summer of 1883 gave the British officers their first chance of acquiring the esteem and confidence of their men, and the opportunity was nobly utilized. While the patient fellah, resigned to the decrees of the Almighty, saw the ruling Egyptian class hurry away from Cairo, he saw also those of his comrades who were stricken tenderly nursed, soothed in death's struggles, and in many cases actually washed, laid out and interred by their new self-sacrificing and determined masters. The regeneration of the fellahin army dates from that epidemic. When the Egyptian Army of the Delta was dispersed at Tell el-Kebir, the khedive had 40,000 troops in the Sudan, scattered from Massawa on the Red Sea to 1200 m. towards the west, and from Wadi Haifa, 1500 m. southward to Wadelai, near Albert Nyanza. These were composed of Turks, Albanians, Circassians and some Sudanese. Ten thousand fellahin, collected in March 1883, mainly from Arabi's former forces, set out from Duem, loo m. south of Khartum, in September 1883, under Hicks Pasha, a dauntless retired Indian Army officer, to vanquish the Mahdi. They disappeared in the deserts of Kordofan, where they were destroyed by the Mahdists about 50 m. south of El Obeid. In the wave of successful rebellion, except at Khartum, few of the Egyptian garrisons were killed when the posts fell, long residence and local family ties rendering easy their assimilation in the ranks of the Mahdists. Baker Pasha, with about 4000 constabulary, who were old soldiers, attempted to relieve Tokar in February 1884. He was attacked by 1200 tribesmen and utterly routed, losing 4 Krupp guns, 2 machine guns and 3000 rifles. Only 1400 Egyptians escaped the slaughter. The sirdar made an attempt to raise a battalion of Albanians, but the few men obtained mutinied when ordered to proceed to the Sudan, and it was deemed advisable, after the ringleaders had been executed, to abandon the idea, and rely on blacks to stiffen the fellahin. Then the 9th (Sudanese) Battalion was created for service at Suakin, and four others having been successively added, these (with one exception — at Gedaref) have since borne the brunt of all the fighting which has been done by the khedivial troops. The Egyptian troops in the operations near Suakin behaved well; and there were many instances of personal gallantry by individual soldiers. In the autumn of 1884, when a British expedition went up the Nile to endeavour to relieve the heroic Gordon, besieged in Khartum, the Egyptians did remarkably good work on the line of com- munication from Assiut to Korti, a distance of 800 m., and the training and experience thus gained were of great value in all subsequent operations. The honesty and discipline of the fellah were shown to be undoubtedly of a high order. When the crews of the whale-boats were conveying stores, the forwarding officers tried to keep brandy and such like medical comforts from the European crews, coffee and tea from Canadian voyageurs and sugar from Kroo boys. The only immaculate carrier was the Egyptian. A large sum of specie having failed under British escort to reach Dongola, an equivalent sum was handed to an Egyptian lieutenant of six months' service, with 10 men, and duly reached its destination. Twelve years later the standard of honesty was unimpaired, and the British officers had imparted energy and activity into Egyptians of all ranks. The intelligent professional knowledge of the native officers, taught under British gentlemen, and the constant hard work cheerfully rendered by the fellah soldiers, were the main factors of the success achieved at Omdurman on the 2nd of September 1898. The large depots of stores at Assuan, Haifa and Dongola could only be cursorily supervised by British officers, and yet when the stores were received at the advance depot the losses were infinitesimal. By nature the fellah is unwarlike. Born in the valley of a great river, he resembles in many respects the Bengali, who exists under similar conditions; but the Egyptian character has proved capable of greater improvement. He is ofEgyp- stronger in frame, and can undergo greater exertion. tla" Singularly unemotional, he stood steady at Tell el- soldler- Kebir after Arabi Pasha and all his officers, from general to sub- altern, had fled, and gave way only when decimated by the British field artillery firing case shot. At El Teb, however, in 1884 he allowed himself to be slaughtered by tribesmen formerly despised, and only about one-fourth of the force under General Valentine Baker escaped. Baker Pasha's force was termed constabulary, yet his men were all old soldiers, though new to their gallant leader and to the small band of their brave but strange British officers. Since that fatal day, however, many of the fellahin have shown they are capable of devoted conduct, and much has been done to raise in the soldiers a sense of self- respect, and, in spite of centuries of oppression, of veracity. The barrack-square drill was smart under the old system, but there was no fire discipline, and all individuality was crushed. Now both are encouraged, and the men, receiving their full rations, are unsurpassable in endurance at work and in marching. All the troops present in the surprise fight when the Dervish force was destroyed at Firket in June 1896 had covered long distances, and one battalion (the loth Sudanese) accomplished 90 m. within 72 hours, including the march back to railhead immediately after the action. The troops under Colonel Parsons, Royal Artillery, who beat the Dervishes at Gedaref, were so short of British officers that all orders were necessarily given in Arabic and carried to commanders of units by Arabs. While an Egyptian battalion was attacking in line, it was halted to repel a rush from the rear, and front and rear ranks were simul- taneously engaged, firing in opposite directions — yet the fellahin were absolutely steady; they shot well and showed no signs of trepidation. On the other hand, neither was there any exultation after their victory. It has been aptly said " the fellah would ANCIENT1 EGYPT 39 make an admirable soldier if he only wished to kill some one!" The fellaain furnish three squadrons, five batteries, three garrison artillery companies and nine battalions. The well-educated Egyptian officer, with his natural aptitude for figures, does subordinate regimental routine carefully, and works well when supervised by men of stronger character. The ordinary Egyptian is not self-reliant or energetic by nature, and, like most Eastern people, finds it difficult to be impartial where duty and family or other personal relations are in the balance. The black soldier has, on the other hand, many of the finest fighting qualities. This was observed by British officers, from the time of the preliminary operations about Kosha and at the action near Ginnis in December 1885 down to the brilliant operations in the pursuit of the Mahdists on the Blue Nile after the action of Gedaref (subsequent to the battle of Omdurman), and the fighting in Kordofan in 1809, which resulted in the death of the khalifa and his amirs. Black soldiers served in the army of Mehemet All, but their fighting value was not then duly appreciated. Prior to the death of the khalifa, many of his soldiers deserted to join their brethren who had been captured by the sirdar's troops, during the gradual advance up the Nile. After 1809 many more enlisted: the greater number were Shilluks and Dinkas coming from the country between Fashoda and the equatorial provinces, but a proportion came from the western borders of the Sudan, and some from Wadai and Bornu. Many were absolute savages, difficult to control, wayward and thoughtless like children. Sudanese are very excitable and apt to get out of hand; unlike the fellahs they are not fond of drill, and are slow to acquire it; but their dash, pugnacious instincts and desire to dose with an enemy, are valuable military qualities. The Sudanese, moreover, shoot better than the fellahin, whose eyesight is often defective. The Sudanese captain can seldom read or write, and is therefore in the hands of the Egyptian-born company quartermaster- sergeant as regards pay and clothing accounts. He is slow, and as a rule has little knowledge of drill. Nevertheless he is self- reliant, much respected by his men, and can be trusted in the field to carry out any orders received from his British officer. The most efficient companies in the Sudanese battalions are apparently those in which the captain is a black and the lieu- tenants are Egyptians. In 1908 the Egyptian army, with a. total establishment of 18,000, consisted of three squadrons of cavalry (one composed of Sudanese) each numbering 116 men; four batteries of field artillery and a Maxim battery, horses and mules being used, with a total strength of 1257 of all ranks; the camel corps, 626 of all ranks (fellahin and Sudanese); and nine fellahin and six Sudanese infantry battalions, 10,631 <>f all ranks. Every battalion receives two additional com- panies oa mobilization and takes the field with six companies. The armament of the infantry is Martini-Henry rifle and bayonet ; of the cavalry, lance, sword and carbine. There are seven gunboats on the Nile. The medical department (reorganized in 1883 by Surgeon-Major J. G Rogers at the time of the cholera epidemic) controls in peace fourteen station hospitals, and in war furnishes a mobile field hos- pital to each brigade. There are also veterinary station hospitals. The supply department controls mills at Tura, Haifa and Khartum. The stringent system of selecting British officers, originated by the first sirdar in 1883. is shown by the fact that of the 24 employed in creating the army, 14 roee to be generals. The competition for employment in the army is still severe. In 1908 there were 140 British warrant and non-commissioned officers. Four of the fellahin £taioM were officered by Orientals; in the other five, British oncers commanded. Seven officers were employed with the artillery, ix with the camel corps. Each of the Sudanese battalions had four *«*• "fioers, and each squadron of cavalry one. Twelve medical twoveteriiiary officers are also employed departmentally, as * «• officers acting as directors of supply, &c. Since the assump- M romnnod by the third sirdar. Colonel (afterwards Lord) :chener, the ordnance, supply and engineer services have been separately administered, and a financial secretary is charged with the duty of preparing the budget, making contracts, &c. The total annual expenditure • (500,000. The reorganized military school system under British control, for supplying officers, dates from 1887. The course lasts for about two . and two hundred students can be accommodated. After the 9ll?»t of the Sudan one-fourth of the cadets in the military l of Cairo were Sudanese. Later, however, the Sudanese cadets were transferred to a branch school at Khartum. The army raised by the first sirdar in January 1883 was highly commended for its work on the line of communication in 1884-1 NK.s, .in.l its artillery and camelry distinguished themselves in tin- action at KirlK-kan in February 1885. Colonel Sir Francis Grenfcll suc- ceeded General Sir Evelyn Wood in March 1885, and while under his command the army continued to improve, and fought successful actions at Gemaiza, Argin, Toski and Tokar. At Toski the Dervish force was nearly annihilated. In March 1892 Colonel Kitchener succeeded General Sir Francis Grenfell, and four years later began his successful reconqucst of the Sudan. In June 1896, owing to the indefatigable exertions of Major Wingate, a perfected system of secret intelligence enabled the sirdar to bring an overwhelming force of 6 to I against the Dervish outpost at Firket and destroy it. In September 1896 a skirmish at Hafir, with similarly successful tactics, gave the British commander the possession of Dongola. On the 7th of August 1897 Colonel Hunter surprised and annihilated a weak Dervish garrison at Abu Hamed, to which place, by the 3ist of October 1897, a railway had been laid across tne Nubian desert from Wadi Haifa, a distance of 230 m., the " record " construction of 5300 yds surveyed, embanked and laid in one day having been attained. On the 26th of December 1897 the Italian troops handed over Kassala to Colonel Parsons, R.A. On the 8th of April 1898 a British division, with the Egyptian army, destroyed the Dervish force under the amir Mahmud Ahmed, on the Atbara river. On the 2nd of September the khalifa attacked the British-Egyptian troops at Kerren (near Omdurman), and being routed, his men dispersed; Khartum was occupied, and on the igth of September the Egyptian flag was rehoisted at Fashoda. On the 22nd of September 1898 Gedaref was taken from the amir Ahmed Fedil by Colonel Parsons, and on the 26th of December the army of Ahmed Fedil was finally defeated and dispersed near Roseires. The khalifa's army, reduced to an insignificant number, after several unsuccessful engagements withdrew to the west of the Nile, where it was attacked, on the 24th of November 1899, after a forced march by Colonel Wingate, and annihilated. The khalifa himself was killed ; while the victor, who had joined the Egyptian army in 1883 as aide-de-camp to the first sirdar, in December 1899 became the fourth sirdar, as Major-General Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.. D.S.O.. &c. (E. Wo.) II. ANCIENT EGYPT A. Exploration and Research. — Owing to its early develop- ment of a high civilization with written records, its wealth, and its preservative climate, Egypt is the country which most amply repays archaeological research. It is especially those long ages during which Egypt was an independent centre of culture and government, before its absorption in the Persian empire in the 6th century B.C., that make the most powerful appeal to the imagination and can often justify this appeal by the splendour of the monuments representing them. Later, however, the history of Hellenism, the provincial history of the Roman empire, the rise of Christianity and the triumph of Islam successively receive brilliant illustration in Egypt. As early as the i7th century travellers began to bring home specimens of ancient Egyptian handiwork: a valuable stele' from Sakkara of the beginning of the Old Kingdom was presented to the Ashmolcan Museum at Oxford in 1683. In the following century the Englishman R. Pococke (1704-1765), the Dane F. L. Norden (1708-1742), both travelling in 1737, and others later, planned, described or figured Egyptian ruins in a primitive way and identified many of the sites with cities named in classical authors. Napoleon's great military expedition in 1798 was accompanied by a scientific commission including artists and archaeologists, the results of whose labours fill several of the magnificent volumes of the Description de I'Egypte. The antiquities collected by the expedition, including the famous Rosctta stone, were ceded to the British government at the capitulation of Alexandria, in 1801. Thereafter Mehemet Ali threw Egypt freely open to Europeans, and a busy traffic in antiquities began, chiefly through the agency of the consuls of different powers. From the year 1820 onwards the growth of the European collections was rapid, and Champollion's decipher- ments (see below, § " Language and Writing ") of the hiero- glyphic inscriptions, dating from 1821, added fresh impetus to the fashion of collecting, in spite of doubts as to their trust- worthiness. In 1827 a combined expedition led by Champollion and Roscllini was despatched by the governments of France and Tuscany, and accomplished a great deal of valuable work in copying scenes and inscriptions. But the greatest of such expeditions was that of Lepsius, under the auspices of the EGYPT [ANTIQUITIES Prussian government, in 1842-1845. Its labours embraced not only Egypt and Nubia (as far as Khartum) but also the Egyptian monuments in Sinai and Syria; its immense harvest of material is of the highest value, the new device of taking paper impres- sions or " squeezes " giving Lepsius a great advantage over his predecessors, similar to that which was later conferred by the photographic camera. A new period was opened in Egyptian exploration in 1858 when Mariette was appointed director of archaeological works in Egypt, his duties being to safeguard the monuments and prevent their exploitation by dealers. As early as 1 83 5 Mehemet Ah' had given orders for a museum to be formed; little however, was accomplished before the whole of the resulting collection was given away to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria in 1855. Mariette, who was appointed by the viceroy Said Pasha at the instance of the French government, succeeded in making his office effective and permanent, in spite of political intrigues and the whims of an Oriental ruler; he also secured a building on the island of Bulak (Bulaq) for a viceregal museum in which the results of his explorations could be permanently housed. Supported by the French interest, the established character of this work as a department of the Egyptian government (which also claims the ancient sites) has been fully recognized since the British occupation. The " Service of Antiquities " now boasts a large annual budget and employs a number of European and native officials — a director, curators of the museum, European inspectors and native sub-inspectors of provinces (at Luxor for Upper Egypt and Nubia, at Assiut for Middle Egypt and the Fayum, at Mansura for Lower Egypt, besides a European official in charge of the government excavations at Memphis) . The museum, no longer the property of an individual, was removed in 1889 from the small building at Bulak to a disused palace at Giza,and since 1902 has been established at Kasr-en-Nil, Cairo, in a special building, of ample size and safe from fire and flood. In the year 1881 the directorship of the museum was temporarily undertaken by Prof. Maspero, who resumed it in 1899. The admirably conducted Archaeological Survey of the portion of Nubia threatened by the raising of the Assuan dam is in the charge of another department — the Survey department, directed for many years up to 1909 by Captain H. G. Lyons. Non-official agencies (supported by voluntary contributions) for exploration in Egypt comprise the Egypt Exploration Fund, started in London in 1881, with its two branches, viz. the Archaeo- logical Survey (1890) for copying and publishing the monuments above ground, and the Graeco-Roman Branch (1897), well known through the brilliant work in Greek papyri of B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt; and the separate Research Account founded by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie in London (University College) in 1896, and since 1905 called the British School of Archaeology in Egypt (see especially MEMPHIS). The Mission archeologique franqaise au Caire, established as a school by the French govern- ment in 1881, was re-organized in 1901 on a lavish scale under the title Institul franfais d'archeologie orientate du Caire, and domi- ciled with printing-press and library in a fine building near the museum. As the result of an excellent bargain, it was afterwards removed to the Munira palace in the south-east part of the city. An archaeologist is attached to the German general consulate to look after the interests of German museums, and is director of the German Institute of Archaeology. The Orient-Gesellschaft (German Orient-Society) has worked in Egypt since 1901 with brilliant results. Excavations and explorations are also con- ducted annually by the agents of universities and museums in England, America and Germany, and by private explorers, concessions being granted generally on the terms that the Egyptian government shall retain half of the antiquities dis- covered, while the other half remains for the finders. The era of scientific excavation began with Flinders Petrie's work at Tanis in 1883. Previous explorers kept scientific aims in view, but the idea of scientific archaeology was not realized by them. The procedure in scientific excavation is directed to collecting and interpreting all the information that can be obtained from the excavation as to the history and nature of the site explored, be it town, temple, house, cemetery or individual grave, wasting no evidence that results from it touching the endless problems which scientific archaeology affords — whether in regard to arts and crafts, manners and customs, language, history or beliefs. This is a totally different thing from mere hunting for inscriptions, statues or other portable objects which will present a greater or less value in themselves even when torn from their context. Such may, of course, form the greater part of the harvest and working material of a scientific excavator; their presence is most welcome to him, but their complete absence need be no bar to his attainment of important historical results. The absence of scientific excavation in Egypt was deplored by the Scottish archaeologist Alexander Henry Rhind (1833-1863), as early as 1862. Since Flinders Petrie began, the general level of research has gradually risen, and, while much is shamefully bad and destructive, there is a certain proportion that fully realizes the requirements of scientific archaeology. Antiquities, Sites, &c. — The remains for archaeological in- vestigation in Egypt may be roughly classified as material and literary: to the latter belong the texts on papyri and the inscriptions, to the former the sites of ancient towns with the temples, fortifications and houses; remains of roads, canals, quarries and other matters falling within the domain of ancient topography; the larger monuments, as obelisks, statues, stelae, &c. ; and finally the small antiquities — utensils, clothes, weapons, amulets, &c. Where moisture can reach the antiquities their preservation is no better in Egypt than it would have been in other countries; for this reason all the papyri in the Delta have perished unless they happen to have been charred by fire. A terrible pest is a kind of termite which is locally abundant and has probably visited most parts of Egypt at one time or another, destroying all dead vegetable or animal material in the soil that was not specially protected. In Lower Egypt the cities built of crude brick were very numerous, especially after the 7th century B.C., but owing to the value of stone very few of their monuments have escaped destruction: even the mounds of rubbish which marked their sites furnish a valuable manure for the fields and in consequence are rapidly disappearing. Granite and other hard stones, having but a limited use (for millstones and the like), have the best chance of survival. At Bubastis, Tanis, Behbeit (Iseum) and Heliopolis considerable stone remains have been discovered. In the north of the Delta wherever salt marshes have prevented cultivation in modern times, the mounds, such as those of Pelusium, still stand to their full height, and the more important are covered with ruins of brick structures of Byzantine and Arab date. Middle and Upper Egypt were less busy and prosperous in the later ages than Lower Egypt. There was consequently somewhat less consumption of the old stone-work. Moreover, in many places equally good material could be obtained without much difficulty from the cliffs on both sides of the Nile. Yet even the buried portions of limestone buildings have seldom been permitted to survive on the cultivated land; the Nubian sand- stone of Upper Egypt was of comparatively little value, and, generally speaking, buildings in that material have fallen into decay rather than been destroyed by quarrying. Starting from Cairo and going southward we have first the great pyramid-field, with the necropolis of Memphis as its centre; stretching from Abu Roash on the north to Lisht on the south, it is followed by the pyramid group of Dahshur, the more isolated pyramids of Medum and Illahun, and that of Hawara in the Fayum. On the east bank are the limestone quarries of Turra and Masara opposite Memphis. South of the Fayum on the western border of the desert are the tombs of Deshasha, Meir and Assiut, and on the east bank those of Beni Hasan, the rock- cut temple of Speos Artemidos, the tombs of El Bersha and Sheikh Said, the tombs and stelae of El Amarna with the alabaster quarries of Hanub in the desert behind them, and the tombs of Deir el Gebrawi. Beyond Assiut are the tombs of Dronka and Rlfa, the temples of Abydos and Dendera, and the tombs, &c., at Akhmlm and Kasr es Saiyad. Farther south are the stupendous '• \ ANIKJl 1TIES] EGYPT mini of Thebes on both sides of the river, the temple of Esna, the ruins and tombs of Ell Kib, the temple of Edfu, the quarries of Sibil* and the temple of Ombos, followed by the inscribed rocks of the First Cataract, the tombs and quarries of Assuan and the temples of Philae. In Nubia, owing to the poverty of the country and its scanty population, the proportion of monuments surviving is infinitely greater than in Egypt. Here are the temples of Debod, the temple and quarries of Kertassi, the temples of Kalabsha, Bit cl Wali, DendOr, Gerf Huscn, Dakka, Maharaka, Es-Sebu'a, 'A ml da and Derr, the grottos of Elles ya, the tombs of Anlba, the temple of Ibrim, the great rock-temples of Abu-Simbel, the temples at Jebcl Adda and Wadi Haifa, the forts and temples of •.a, the temples of Arnara (Meroitic) and Soleb. Beyond are the Ethiopian temples and pyramids of Jebcl Barkal and the other pyramids of Napata at Tangassi, &c., the still later pyramids of Meroe at Begerawla, and the temples of Mcsauwar&t and Naga reaching to within 50 m. of Khartum. Outside the Nile valley on the west are temples in the Great and Little Oases and the Oasis of Ammon: on the east quarries and stelae on the Hammamat road to the Red Sea, and mines and other remains at Wadi Magh&ra and Ser&blt el Khadim in the Sinai peninsula. In Syria there are tablets of conquest on the rocks at the mouth of the Nahr el K fib. Of the collections of Egyptian antiquities in public museums, those of the British Museum, Leiden, Berlin, the Louvre, Turin were already very important in the first half of the igth century, also in a less degree those of Florence, Bologna and the Vatican. Most of these have since been greatly increased and many others have been created. By far the largest collection in the world is that at Cairo. In America the museums and universities of Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, San Francisco and New York have collections of greater or less interest. Besides these the museums of Edinburgh, Liverpool, Manchester and Oxford are noteworthy in Great Britain for their Egyptian antiquities, as are those of St Petersburg, Vienna, Marseilles, Munich, Copenhagen, Palermo and Athens; there are also collections in most of the British colonies. Private collections are numerous. Literary Records. — In estimating the sources of information regarding pre-Christian Egypt, the native sources, first opened to us by Champollion, are infinitely the most important. With very few exceptions they are contemporary with the events which they record. Of the composition of history and the description of their own manners and customs by the Egyptians for posterity, few traces have reached our day. Consequently the information derived from their monuments, in spite of their great abundance, is of a fortuitous character. For one early papyrus that survives, many millions must have perished. If the journals of accounts, the letters and business documents, had come down to us en masse, they would no doubt have yielded to research the history and life of Egypt day by day; but those that now represent a thousand years of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom together would not half fill an ordinary muni- ment chest. A larger proportion of the records on stone have survived, but that an event should be inscribed on stone depends on a variety of circumstances and not necessarily on its importance. There may seem to be a great abundance of Egyptian monuments, bat they have to cover an enormous space of time, and even in the periods which are best represented, gravestones recording the name* of private persons with a prayer or two are scarcely material for history. A scrap of annals has been found extending from the earliest times to the Vth Dynasty, as well as a very fragmentary list of kings reaching nearly to the end of the Middle Kingdom, to help out the scattered data of the other monuments. As to manners and customs, although we possess no systematic descriptions of them from a native source, the native artists and scribes have presented us with exceptionally rich materials in the painted and sculptured scenes of the tombs from the Old and Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. For Uie Deltaic dynasties these sources fail absolutely, the scenes being then either purely religious or conventional imitations of the earlier ones. Fortunately the native records arc largely supplemented by others: valuable information comes from cuneiform literature, belonging to two widely separated periods. The first group is contemporary with the XVIHth and XlXth Dynasties and consists in the first place of the Tell el Amarna tablets with others related to them, containing the reports of governors of the Syrian possessions of Egypt, and the correspondence of the kings of Babylon, Assur, Mitanni and Khatti (the Hittites) with the Pharaohs. The sequel to this is furnished by Winckler's discovery of documents relating to Ramescs II. of the XlXth Dynasty in the Hittite capital at Boghaz Keui (see also HITTITES and PTERIA). The other group comprises the annals and in- scriptions of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal, recording their invasions of Egypt under the XXVth Dynasty. There are also a few references to Egypt of later date down to the reign of Darius. In Hebrew literature the Pentateuch, the historical books and the prophets alike contain scanty but precious information regarding Egypt. Aramaic papyri written principally by Jews of the Persian period (sth century B.C.) have been found at Syene and Memphis. Of all the external sources the literary accounts written in Greek are the most valuable. They comprise fragments of the native historian Manet ho, the descriptions of Egypt in Herodotus and Diodorus, the geographical accounts of Strabo and Ptolemy, the treatise of Plutarch on Isis and Osiris and other monographs or scattered notices of less importance. Our knowledge of the . history of Alexander's conquest, of the Ptolemies and of -fhe Roman occupation is almost entirely derived from Greek sources, and in fact almost the same might be said of the history of Egypt as far back as the beginning of the XXVIth Dynasty. The non-literary Greek remains in papyri and inscriptions which are being found in great abundance throw a flood of light on life in Egypt and the administration of the country from the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus to the Arab conquest. On the other hand, papyri and inscriptions in Latin are of the greatest rarity, and the literary remains in that language are of small importance for Egypt. Arabic literature appears to be entirely barren of authentic information regarding the earlier condition of the country. Two centuries of unchallenged Christianity had broken almost completely the traditions of paganism, even if the Moslems had been willing to consider them, either in their fanciful accounts of the origins of cities, &c., or elsewhere. B. The Country in Ancient Times. — The native name of Egypt was Kemi (KM-T), clearly meaning " the black land," Egypt being so called from the blackness of its alluvial soil (cf. Plut'. De Is. et Os. cap. 33) : in poetical inscriptions Kemi is often opposed to Toshri, " the red land," referring to the sandy deserts around, which however, Would probably be included in the term Kemi in its widest sense. Egypt is called in Hebrew Mizraim, trip, possibly a dual form describing the country in reference to its two great natural and historical divisions of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt: but Mizraim (poetically sometimes M§z6r) often means Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt being named Pathros, " the south land." In Assyrian the name § was Musri, Misri: in Arabic it is Mi§r, j^e, pronounced Ma$r in the vulgar dialect of Egypt. These names are certainly of Semitic origin and perhaps derive from the Assyrian with the meaning " frontier-land " (see MIZKAIM). Winckler's theory of a separate Musri immediately south of Palestine is now generally rejected (see, for instance, Ed. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme, 455). The Greek AZ-ywrros (Aegyptus) occurs as early as Homer; in the Odyssey it is the name of the Nile (masc.) as well as of the country (fern.) : later it was con- fined to the country. Its origin is very obscure (see Pietsch- mann in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopitdie, s.v. " Aigyptos "). Brugsch's derivation from Hakeptah, a name of the northern capital, Memphis, though attractive, is unconfirmed. Egypt normally included the whole of the Mile valley from the First Cataract to the sea; pure Egyptians, however, formed the population of Lower Nubia above the Cataract in prehistoric EGYPT [ANTIQUITIES times; at some periods also the land was divided into separate kingdoms, while at others Egypt stretched southward into Nubia, and it generally claimed the neighbouring Libyan deserts and oases on the west and the Arabian deserts on the east to the shore of the Red Sea, with Sinai and the Mediterranean coast as far as Rhinocorura (El Arlsh). The physical features in ancient times were essentially the same as at the present day. The bed of the Nile was lower: it appears to have risen by its own deposits at a rate of about 4 in. in a century. In the north of the Delta, however, there was a sinking of the land, in consequence of which the accumulations on some of the ancient sites there extend below the present sea -level. On the other hand at the south end of the Suez canal the land may have risen bodily, since the head of the Gulf of Suez has been cut off by a bank of rock from the Bitter lakes, which were probably joined to it in former days. The banks of the Nile and the islands in it are subject to gradual but constant altera- tion— indeed, several ancient sites have been much eroded or destroyed — and the main volume of the stream may in course of time be diverted into what has previously been a secondary channel. According to the classical writers, the mouths or branches of the Nile in the Delta were five in number (seven including two that were artificial): now there are only two. In Upper Egypt the main stream tended as now to flow along the eastern edge of the valley, while to the west was a parallel stream corresponding to the Bahr Yusuf. From the latter a canal or branch led to the Lake of Moeris, which, until the 3rd century B.C., filled the deep depression of the Fayum, but is now represented only by the strongly brackish waters of the Birket el Rerun, left in the deepest part. The area of alluvial land has probably not changed greatly in historic times. The principal changes that have occurred are due to the grip which civilization has taken upon the land in the course of thousands of years, often weakening but now firmer than ever. In early days no doubt the soil was cultivated in patches,- but gradually a great system of canals was organized under the control of the central government, both for irrigation and for transport. The wild flora of the alluvial valley was probably always re- stricted and eventually was reduced ajmost to the " weeds of cultivation," when every acre of soil, at one period of the year under water, and at another roasted under the burning heat of a semi-tropical sun, was carefully tilled. The acacia abounded en the borders of the valley, but the groves were gradually cut down for the use of the carpenter and the charcoal-burner. The desert was full of wild life, the balance of nature being preserved by the carnivorous animals preying on the herbivorous; trees watered by soakage from the Nile protected the' under- growth and encouraged occasional rainfall. But this balance was upset by the early introduction of the goat and later of the camel, which destroyed the sapling trees, while the grown ones fell to the axe of the woodcutter. Thus in all probability the Egyptian deserts have become far poorer in animals and trees than they were in primitive times. Much of Lower Egypt was left in a wilder state than Upper Egypt. The marshy lands in the north were the resort of fishermen and fowlers, and the papyrus, the cultivation of which was a regular industry, pro- tected an abundance of wild life. The abandonment of papyrus culture in the 8th century A.D., the neglect of the canals, and the inroads of the sea, have converted much of that country into barren salt marsh, which only years of draining and washing can restore to fertility. The rich alluvial deposits of the Nile which respond so readily to the efforts of the cultivator ensured the wealth of the country. Moulded into brick, without burning, this black clay also supplied the common wants of the builder, and even the palaces of the greatest kings were constructed of crude brick. For more lasting and ambitious work in temples and tombs the materials could be obtained from the rocks and deserts of the Nile valley. The chief of these was limestone of varying degrees of fineness, com- posing the cliffs which lined the valley from the apex of the Delta to the neighbourhood of El Kab; the best quality was obtained on the east side opposite Memphis from the quarries of Turra and Masara. From El Kab southward its place was taken by Libyan sandstone, soft and easily worked, but unsuitable for fine sculpture. These two were the ordinary building stones. In the limestone was found the flint or chert used for weapons and instruments in early times. For alabaster the principal quarry was that of Hanub in the desert 10 m. behind El Amarna, but it was obtained elsewhere in the limestone region, including a spot near Alexandria. A hard and fine-grained quartzite sandstone was quarried at Jebel Ahmar behind Heliopolis, and basalt was found thence along the eastern edge of the Delta to near the Wadi Tumilat. Red granite was obtained from the First Cataract, breccia and diorite were quarried from very early times in the Wadi Hammamat, on the road from Coptos to the Red Sea, and porphyry was brought, chiefly in Roman times but also in the prehistoric age, from the same region at Jebel Dokhan. Egypt was poor in metals. Gold was obtained chiefly from Nubia: iron was found in small quantities in the country and at one time was worked in the neighbourhood of Assuan. Some copper was obtained in Sinai. Of stones that were accounted precious Sinai produced turquoise and the Egyptian deserts garnet, carnelian and jasper. The native supply of wood for industrial purposes was ex- ceedingly bad: there was no native wood long enough and straight enough to be used in joiners' work or sculpture without fitting and patching: palm trees were abundant, and if the trees could be spared, their split stems could be used for roofing. For boatbuilding papyrus stems and acacia wood were employed, and for the best work cedar-wood was imported from Lebanon. Egypt was isolated by the deserts and the sea. The Nile valley afforded a passage by ship or on foot into Nubia, where, however, little wealth was to be sought, though gold and rarities from the Sudan, such as ivory and ebony, came that way and an armed raid could yield a good spoil in slaves and cattle. The poverty-stricken and barbarous Nubians were strong and courageous, and gladly served in Egypt as mercenary soldiers and police. Through the oases also ran paths to the Sudan by which the raw merchandise of the southern countries could be brought to Egypt. Eastward, roads led through the Arabian mountains to the Red Sea, whence ships made voyages to the incense-bearing land of Puoni (Punt) on the Somali coast of Africa, rich also in gold and ivory. The mines of Sinai could be reached either by sea or by land along the route of the Exodus. The roads to Syria skirted the east border of the Delta and then followed the coast from near Pelusium through El Arlsh and Gaza. A secondary road branched off through the Wadi Tumilat, whence the ways ran northwards to Syria and southwards to Sinai. On the Libyan side the oasis of Siwa could be reached from the Lake of Moeris or from Terrana (Terenuthis), or by the coast route which also led to the Cyrenaica. The Egyptians had some traffic on the Mediterranean from very remote times, especially with Byblus in Phoenicia, the port for cedar-wood. Of the populations surrounding Egypt the negroes (Nehsi) in the south (Cush) were the lowest in the scale of civilization: the people of Puoni and of Libya (the Tehen, &c.) were pale in colour and superior to the negroes, but still show no sign of a high culture. The Syrians and the Keftiu, the latter now identified with the Cretans and other representatives of the Aegean civilization, are the only peoples who by their elaborate clothing and artistic products reveal themselves upon the ancient Egyptian monuments ,as the equals in culture of the Egyptian nation. The Egyptians seem to have applied no distinctive name to themselves in early times: they called themselves proudly romi (RMT.W), i.e. simply " men," " people," while the despised races around them, collectively 3'SWT, " desert-peoples," were dis- tinguished by special appellations. The races of mankind, including the Egyptians, were often called the Nine Archers. Ultimately the Egyptians, when their insularity disappeared under the successive dominations of Ethiopia, Assyria and Persia, described themselves as rem-n-Kemi, " men of Egypt." Whence the population of Egypt as we trace it in prehistoric and historic times came, is not certain. The early civilization ANTIQL'ITIES] EGYPT 43 of Egypt shows remarkable coincidences with that of Babylonia, the language is of a Semitic type, the religion may well be a compound of a lower African and a higher Asiatic order of ideas. According to the evidence of the mummies, the Egyptians were of slender build, with dark hair and of Caucasian type. Dr Elliott Smith, who has examined thousands of skeletons and mummies of all periods, finds that the prehistoric population of Upper Egypt, a branch of the North African-Mediterrancan- Arabian race, changed with the advent of the dynasties to a stronger type, better developed than before in skull and muscle. This was apparently due to admixture with the Lower Egyptians, who themselves had been affected by Syrian immigration. There- after little further change is observable, although the rich lands of Egypt must have attracted foreigners from all parts. The Egyptian artists of the New Empire assigned distinctive types of feature as well as of dress to the different races with which they came into contact, Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, Bedouins, negroes, &c. The people of Egypt were not naturally fierce or cruel. In- tellectually, too, they were somewhat sluggish, careless and unbusinesslike. In the mass they were a body of patient labourers, tilling a rich soil, and hating all foreign lands and ways. The wealth of their country gave scope for ability within the population and also attracted it from outside: it enabled the kings to organize great monumental enterprises as well as to arm irresistible raids upon the inferior tribes around. Urged on by necessity and opportunity, the Egyptians possessed sufficient enterprise and originating power to keep ahead of their neighbours in most departments of civilization, until the more warlike empires of Assyria and Persia overwhelmed them and the keener intellects of the Greeks outshone them in almost every department. The debt of civilization to Egypt as a pioneer must be considerable, above all perhaps in religious thought. The moral ideals of its nameless teachers were high from an early date: their conception of an after-life was ex- ceedingly vivid: the piety of the Egyptians in the later days was a matter of wonder and scoffing to their contemporaries; it is generally agreed that certain features in the development of Christianity 'are to be traced to Egypt as their birthplace and nidus. For researches into the ethnography of Egypt and the neigh- bouring countries, see W. Max Muller, Asien und Europe nach den alldf. InuhnJtfH (Leipzig, 1893), Egyptological Researches (Washing- ton, 1906); for measurements of Egyptian skulls, Miss Fawcett in Biomelrika (1902); A. Thomson and D. Randalt-Maclyer, The Ancient Kaeet of the Thebaid (Oxford, 1905) (cf. criticisms in Man, 1905: and for comparisons with modern measurements, C. S. Myers, Jonrn. A nthropolotical Institute, 1905, 80). W. Flinders Petrie has collected and discussed a series of facial types shown in prehistoric and early Egyptian sculpture. Journal Anthropological Institute, 1001 . 248. For Elliott Smith's results sec The Cairo Scientific Journal, No. 30, vol. iii.. March 1909. Divisions— In ancient times Egypt was divided into two regions, representing the kingdoms that existed before Menes. Lower Egypt, comprising the Delta and its borders, formed the " North Land," To-mek, and reached up the valley to include Memphis and its province or " nome," while the remainder of the Egyptian Nile valley was " the South,' Shema The south, if only as the abode of the sun, always had the preced- ence over the north in Egypt, and the west over the east. Later the two regions were known respectively as P-to-res (Pathros), ' the south land," and P-to-meh, " the north land." In practical administration this historic distinction was sometimes observed, at others ignored, but in religious tradition it had a firm hold. In Roman times a different system marked off a third region, namely Middle Egypt, from the point of the Delta southward. Theoretically, as its name Heptanomis implies, this division contained seven nomes, actually from the Hermopolite on the iouth to the Memphite on the north (excluding the Arsinoite according to the papyri). Some tendency to this existed earlier. Egypt to the south of the Heptanomis was the Thebais, called P-tah-en-Ne, " the province of Thebes," as early as the XXVIth Dynasty. The Thebais was much under the influence of the Ethiopian kingdom, and was separated politically in the troubled times of the XXIIIrd Dynasty, though the old division into Upper and Lower Egypt was resumed in the XXVIth Dynasty. If Upper and Lower Egypt represented ancient kingdoms, the nomes have been thought to carry on the traditions of tribal settlements. They are found in inscriptions as early as the end of the Illrd Dynasty, and the very name of Thoth, and that of another very ancient god, are derived from those of two con- tiguous nomes in Lower Egypt. The names arc written by special emblems placed on standards, such as an ibis jt. a jackal . ^— ^1 A V~^V a hare^^, a feathered crown J^_,a sistrum J»L> a blade * ^ , &c., suggesting tribal badges. Some nomes having a common badge but distinguished as " nearer " or " further," i.e " northern " or " southern," have simply been split, as they are contiguous: in one case, however, corresponding " eastern " and " western " Harpoon nomes are widely separated on opposite sides of the Delta. In a few cases, such as " the West," " the Beginning of the East," it is obvious that the names are derived solely from their geographical situation. It is quite possible that the divisions are geographical in the main, but it seems likely that there were also religious, tribal and other historical reasons for them. How their boundaries were determined is not certain: in Upper Egypt in many cases a single nome embraced both sides of the river. The number and nomenclature of the nomes were never absolutely fixed. In temples of Ptolemaic and Roman age the full series is figured presenting their tribute to the god, and this series approximately agrees with the scattered data of early monuments. The normal number of the nomes in the sacred lists appears to be 42, of which 22 belonged to Upper Egypt and 20 to Lower Egypt. In reality again these nome-divisions were treated with considerable freedom, being split or reunited and their boundaries readjusted. Each nome had its metropolis, normally the seat of a governor or nomurch and the centre of its religious observances. During the New Empire, except at the beginning, the nomes seem to have been almost entirely ignored: under the Deltaic dynasties (except of course in the traditions of the sacred writing) they were named after the metropolis, as " the province (tosh) of Busiris," " the province of Sais," &c.: hence the Greek names Boiwpinjj vopbs, &c. The Arsinoite nome was added by the Ptolemies after the draining of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.), and in the later Ptolemaic and the Roman times many changes and additions to the list must have been made. In Christian texts the " provinces " appear to have been very numerous. See H. Brugsch, Geographische Inschriften altdgyptischer Denk- maler (3 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1860), and for the nomcs on monuments of the Old Kingdom, N. de G. Davies, Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep (London, loot), p. 24 et sqq. King and Government. — The government of Egypt was monarchical. The king (for titles see PHARAOH) was the head of the hierarchy: he was himself divine and is often styled " the good god," and was the proper mediator between gods and men. He was also the dispenser of office, confirmer of hereditary titles and estates and the fountain of justice. Oaths were generally sworn by the " life " of the king. The king wore special head- dresses and costumes, including the crowns of Upper Q ancj Lower Egypt j* (often united symbolized by a shield transfixed with arrows, and the god Min s vp , the nature of whose fetish is obscure. In course of time the tribes became localized in particular districts, under the influence of a growing central authority, and their gods then passed from tribal into local deities. Hence it came about that the provincial districts or nomes, as they were called, often derived their names from the gods of tribes that settled in them, these names being hieroglyphically written with the sign for " district " surmounted by standards of the type above described, e.g. ,d~\> "tne nome of the dog Anubis," the lyth or Cynopolite nome of Upper Egypt. In this way a large number of deities came to enjoy special reverence in restricted territories, e.g. the ram Khnum in Elephantine, the jerboa or okapi (?) jtvl Seth in Ombos, the ibis ^fe Thoth in Hermopolis Magna, and of the gods named above, Horus in Hieraconpolis, Wepwawet in Assiut, Neith in Sais, and Min in Coptos. As towns and villages gradu- ally sprang up, they too adopted as their patron some one or other of the original tribal gods, so that these came to have different seats of worship all over Egypt. For this reason it is often hard to tell where the primitive cult-centre of a particular deity is to be sought; thus Horus seems equally at home both at Buto in the Delta and at Hieraconpolis in Upper Egypt, and the earliest worship of Seth appears to have been claimed no less by Tanis in the north than by Ombos in the south. The effect of the localization of gods in many different places was to give them a double aspect; so, for instance, Khnum the god of Elephantine could in one minute be regarded as identical with EGYPT [ANCIENT RELIGION Khnum the god of Esna, while in the next minute and without any conscious sense of contradiction the two might be looked upon as entirely separate beings. In order that there might be no ambiguity as to what divinity was meant, it became usual, in speaking of any local deity, to specify the place of which he was " lord." The tendency to create new forms of a god by instituting his worship in new local centres persisted through- out the whole course of Egyptian history, unhindered by the opposite tendency which made national out of local gods. Some of the cosmic gods, like the sun-god Re of Heliopolis and of Hermonthis, early acquired a local in addition to their cosmic aspect. In the innermost principle of their existence, as patrons and protectors of restricted communities, the primitive tribal gods did not differ from one another. But externally they were dis- tinguishable by the various shapes that their worshippers ascribed to them; and there can be little doubt that even in the beginning each had his own special attributes and particular mythical traits. These, however, may have borne little resemblance to the later conceptions of the same gods with which we are made familiar by the Pyramid texts. Thus we have no means of ascertaining what the earliest people of Sais thought about their goddess Neith, though her fetish would seem to point to her warlike nature. Nor are we much wiser in respect of those primitive tribal gods that are represented on the oldest monu- ments in animal form. For though we may be sure that the shape of an animal was that in which these gods were literally visible to their worshippers, yet it is impossible to tell whether some one living animal was chosen to be the earthly tenement of the deity, or whether he revealed himself in every individual of a species, or whether merely the cult-image was roughly hewn into the shape of an animal. Not too much weight must be attached to later evidence on this point; for the New Kingdom and still more the Graeco- Roman period witnessed a strange recrudescence of supposed primitive cults, to which they gave a form that may or may not have been historically exact. In some places whole classes of animals came to be deemed sacred. Thus at Bubastis, where the cat-headed Bast (Ubasti) was worshipped, vast ceme- teries of mummified cats have been found; and elsewhere similar funerary cults were accorded to crocodiles, lizards, ibises and many other animals. In Elephantine Khnum was supposed to become incarnate in a ram, at whose death the divinity left him and took up his abode in another. So too the bull of Apis (a black animal with white spots) was during its lifetime regarded as a reincarnation of Ptah, the local god of Memphis, and similarly the Mnevis and Bacis bulls were accounted to be " the living souls " of Etom of Heliopolis and of Re of Hermonthis respec- tively; these latter cults are certainly secondary, for Ptah himself was never, either early or late, depicted otherwise than in human form, as a mummy or as a dwarf; and Etom and Re are but different names of the sun-god. The form of a snake, attributed to many local goddesses, especially in later times (e.g. Meresger of the Theban necropolis), was borrowed from the very ancient deity Outo (Buto); the semblance of a snake became so characteristic of female divinities that even the word " goddess " was written with the hieroglyph of a snake. Other animal shapes particularly affected by goddesses were those of a lioness (Sakhmi, Pakhe) or a cow (Hathor, Isis). The primitive animal gods are not to be confused with the animal forms ascribed to many cosmic deities; thus when the sun-god Re was pictured as a scarabaeus, or dung-beetle, rolling its ball of dung behind it, this was certainly mere poetical imagery. Or else a cosmic god might assume an animal shape through assimilation with some tribal god, as when Re was identified with Horus and therefore depicted as a falcon. With the advance of civilization and the transformation of the tribal gods into national divinities, the beliefs held about them must have become less crude. At a very early date the anthropo- morphizing tendency caused the animal deities to be represented with human bodies, though as a rule they retained their animal heads; so in the case of Seth as early as the Ilnd Dynasty. The other gods carry their primitive fetishes in their hands (like Neith, who is depicted holding arrows) or on their heads (so Nefertem [Iphthimis] with his lotus-flower). At the same time the gods began to acquire human personalities. In a few instances this may have come about by the emphasizing of a really primitive trait; as when the wolf Ophois, in consonance with the predatory nature of that animal, developed into a god of war. In other cases the transitional steps are shrouded in mystery; we do not know, for example, why the ibis Thoth subsequently became the patron of the fine arts, the inventor of writing, and the scribe of the gods. But the main factor in this evolutionary process was undoubtedly the formation of myths, which brought gods of independent origin into relation with one another, and thus imbued them with human passions and virtues. Here dim historic recollections often determined the features of the story, and in one famous legend that knits together a group of gods all seemingly local in origin we can still faintly trace how the tale arose, was added to, and finally crystallized in a coherent form. Osiris was a wise and beneficent king, who reclaimed the Egyptians from savagery, gave them laws and taught them handi- crafts. The prosperous reign of Osiris was brought to a premature close by the machinations of his wicked brother Seth, who with seventy-two fellow-conspirators invited him to a banquet, in- duced him to enter a cunningly-wrought coffin made exactly to his measure, then shut down the lid and cast the chest into the Nile. Isis, the faithful wife of Osiris, set forth in search of her dead husband's body, and after long and adventure-fraught wanderings, succeeded in recovering it and bringing it back to Egypt. Then while she was absent visiting her son Horus in the city of Buto, Seth once more gained possession of the corpse, cut it into fourteen pieces, and scattered them all over Egypt. But Isis collected the fragments, and wherever one was found, buried it with due honour; or, according to a different account, she joined the limbs together by virtue of her magical powers, and the slain Osiris, thus resurrected, henceforth reigned as king of the dead in the nether world. When Horus grew up he set out to avenge his father's murder, and after terrible struggles finally conquered and dispossessed his wicked uncle; or, as another version relates, the combatants were separated by Thoth, and Egypt divided between them, the northern part falling to Horus and the southern to Seth. Such is the story as told by Plutarch, with certain additions and modifications from older native sources. There existed, however, a very ancient tradition according to which Horus and Seth were hostile brothers, not nephew and uncle; and many considerations may be urged in support of the thesis which regards their struggles as reminis- cences of wars between two prominent tribes or confederations of tribes, one of which worshipped the falcon Horus while the other had the okapi (?) Seth as its patron and champion. The Horus-tribes were the victors, and it was from them that the dynastic line sprang; hence the Pharaoh always bore the name' of Horus, and represented in his own hallowed person the ancient tribal deity. Of Osiris we can only state that he was originally the local god of Busiris, whatever further characteristics he primitively possessed being quite obscure. Isis was perhaps the local goddess of Buto, a town not far distant from Busiris; this geographical proximity would suffice to explain her con- nexion with Osiris in the tale. A legend now arose, we know not how or why, which made Seth the brother and murderer of Osiris; and this led to a fusion of the Horus-Seth and the Seth- Isis-Osiris motifs. The relationships had now to be readjusted, and the most popular view recognized Horus as the son and avenger of Osiris. The more ancient account survived, however, in the myth that Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis and Nephthys (a goddess who plays but a minor part in the Osiris cycle) were all children of the earth-god Keb and the sky-goddess Nut, born on the five consecutive days added on at the end of the year (the so-called epagomenal days). Later generations reconciled these contradictions by assuming the existence of two Horuses, one, the brother of Osiris, Seth and Isis, being named Haroeris, i.e. Horus the elder, while the other, the child of Isis and Osiris, was called Harpocrates, i.e. Horus the child. ANCIENT RELIGION] EGYPT The second main dais of divinities that entered into the composition of the Egyptian pantheon was due to that innate and universal speculative bent which seeks, and never fails to find, an explanation of the facts of the external world. Behind the great natural phenomena that they perceived all around them, the Egyptians, like other primitive folk, postulated the existence of divine wills not dissimilar in kind to their own, though vastly superior in power. Chief among these cosmic deities was the sun-god Re, whose supremacy seemed predestined under the cloudless sky of Egypt. The oldest conceptions represented Re as sailing across the heavens in a ship called " Manzet," " the bark of the dawn "; at sunset he stepped aboard another vessel named " Mesenktet," " the bark of the dusk," which bore him back from west to east during the night. Later theories symbolized Re in many different ways. For some he was identical with Horus, and then he was falcon-headed and was called Hor-akhti, the Horus of the horizons. Others pictured him to themselves as a tiny infant in the early dawn, as full-grown at noon, and as an infirm old man in the evening. When the sky was imagined as a cow, be was a calf born anew every morning. The moon was a male deity, who likewise fared across the heavens in a boat; hence he was often named Chons, " the sailor." The ibis-god Thoth was early identified with the moon. The stars and planets were likewise gods. Among them the bright star Sirius was held in special esteem; it was a goddess Sothis (Sopde), often identified by the Egyptians with Isis. The constellations that seemed unceasingly to speed across the sky were named " the never-resting ones," and the circumpolar stars, which never sink beneath the horizon, were known as " the imperishable*." Concerning earth and sky there were many different opinions. Some thought that the sky was a goddess Nut, whom the god Show held aloof from her husband Keb the earth, on whose back the plants and trees grew. Others believed in a celestial ocean, personified under the name of Nun, over which the heavenly bodies sailed in boats. At a later date the sky was held to be a cow (Hathor) whose four feet stood firm upon the soil; or else a vast face, in which the right eye was the sun and the left eye the moon. Alongside these fanciful conceptions there existed a more sober view, according to which the earth was a long oval plain, and the sky an iron roof supported by the tops of mountains or by four pillars I I at the cardinal points. Beneath the ground lay a dark and mysterious region, now con- ceived as an inverse heaven (Nenet), now as a vast series of caverns whose gates were guarded by demons. This nether world was known as the Duat (Dat, Ti-i), and through it passed the sun on his journey during the hours of night; here too, as many thought, dwelt the dead and their king Osiris. That great natural feature of Egypt, the Nile, was of course one of the gods; his name was Hapi, and as a sign of his fecundity he had long pendulous breasts like a woman. In contradistinction to the tribal gods, it rarely happened that the cosmic deities enjoyed a cult. But there are a few important exceptions: Re in Heliopolis (here identified with a local god Etom) and in Her- monthb; Hathor at Dendera and elsewhere. Certain of the tribal gods early became identified with cosmic divinities, and the latter thus became the objects of a cult; so, for instance, the Horns of Edfu was a sun-god, and Thoth in Hermopolis Magna was held to be the moon. An extension of the principle that created the cosmic gods gave rise to a large number of minor deities and demons. Day and night, the year, the seasons, eternity, and many similar conceptions were each represented by a god or goddess of their own, who nevertheless possessed but a shadowy and doubtful existence. Human attributes like Taste, Knowledge, Joy and so forth were likewise personified, no less than abstract ideas such as Fate, Destiny and others; rather more dearly defined than the rest was Maat, the goddess of Truth and Right , who was fabled to be the daughter o( Re and may even have had a cult. Certain gods were purely functional, that is to say, they appeared at special times to perform some appointed task, at the completion of which they vanished. Such were Nepri, the god of the corn-harvest; Meskhonit, the goddess who attended every child-bed; Tail, the goddess of weaving. Numberless semi-divine beings had no other purpose than to fill out the myths, as, for instance, the chattering apes that greeted the sun-god Re as he rose above the eastern horizon, and the demons who opened the gates of the nether world at the approach of the setting sun. We take this opportunity of mentioning sundry other divinities who were later introduced to swell the already overcrowded ranks of the paiHheon. Contact with foreign lands brought with it several new deities, Baal, Anat and Resheph from Syria, and the misshapen dwarf Bes from the south; earlier than these, the Astarte of Byblus, whom the Egyptians identified with Hathor. In Thebes Ameno- phis I. and his spouse Nefertari were worshipped as patron gods of the necropolis many centuries after their death. Two men of exceptional wisdom received divine honours, and had temples of their own in the Ptolemaic period; these were Imouthes, who had lived under Zoser of the IHrd Dynasty, and Amenophis son of Hapu, a contemporary of the third king of the same name (XVIIIth Dyn.). The hill of Sheikh Abd-el-gurna at Thebes was looked upon as a particularly holy place, and was revered as a goddess. Almost anything that was regarded with awe, any object used in the divine ritual could at a given moment be envisaged as a deity. Thus the boat of Osiris (Neshemet) and those of the sun-god were goddesses; and various wands and sceptres belonging to certain gods were imagined as harbour- ing the divine being. Truly it might have been said in ancient Egypt: of the making of gods there is no end ! For such order as can be discerned in the mythological con- ceptions of the Egyptians the priesthood was largely responsible. At a very early date the theological school of Heliopolis undertook the task of systematizing the gods and the myths, and it is mainly to them that is due the Egyptian religion as we find it in the Pyramid texts. Their in- fluence is particularly conspicuous in the prominent place accorded to the sun-god Re, and in the creation-legend that made him the father of gods and men. First of all living things was Re; legend told how he arose as a naked babe from a lotus-flower that floated on the primeval ocean Nun. Others held the view that he crept from an egg that lay on a hill in the midst of a lake called Desdes; and a third, more barbarous, tale related his obscene act of self-procreation. Re became the father of the pair of gods Show and Tefnut (Tphenis), who emanated from his spittle. They again gave birth to Keb and Nut, from whom in their turn sprang Osiris and Seth, Isis and Nephthys. These nine gods were together known as the great Ennead or cycle of nine. A second series of nine deities, with Horus as its first member, was invented at the same time or not long afterwards, and was called the Lesser Ennead. In later times the theory of the Ennead became very popular and was adopted by most of the local priesthoods, who substituted their own favourite god for Re, sometimes retaining and sometimes changing the names of the other eight deities. Thus locally many different gods came to be viewed as the creators of the world. Only in two instances, however, did a local god ever obtain wide acceptance in the capacity of demiurge: 1'tah of Memphis, who was famed as an artist and master-builder, and Khnum of Elephantine, who was said to have moulded mankind on the potter's wheel. Already in the Pyramid texts the importance of Osiris almost rivals that of Re. His worship does not seem to have been due to Heliopolitan influence, and may possibly have been propagated by active missionary effort. It is apparently through the funeral cult that Osiris so early took a firm hold on the imagination of the people; for at a very ancient date he was identified with every dead king, and it needed but a slight extension of this idea to make him into a king of the dead. In later times the moral aspect of his tale was doubtless the main cause of its continued popularity; Osiris was named Onnophris, "the good Being" par excellence, and Seth was contrasted with him as the author and the root of all evil. Still the Egyptians themselves seem EGYPT [ANCIENT RELIGION to have been somewhat at a loss to account for the great venera- tion that they paid to Osiris. Successive theories interpreted him as the god of the earth, as the god of the Nile, as a god of vegetation, as a moon-god and as a sun-god; and nearly every one of these theories has been claimed to be the primitive truth by some scholar or another. Nowhere is the conservatism of the Egyptians more clearly displayed than in the tenacity with which they clung to the old forms of the theology, such as we have essayed to describe. Neither the influx of new deities nor the diligence of the priestly authors and commentators availed to break down the cast-iron traditions with which the compilers of the Pyramid texts were already familiar. It is true that with the displacement of the capital town certain local deities attained a degree of power that, superficially regarded, seems to alter the entire perspective of the religion. Thus Ammon, originally the obscure local god of Thebes, was raised by the Theban monarchs of the Xllth and of the XVIIIth to XXIst Dynasties to a predominant position never equalled by any other divinity; and, by similar means, Suchos of the Fayum, Ubasti of Bubastis, and Neith of Sais, each enjoyed for a short space of time a consideration that no other cause would have secured to them. But precisely the example of Ammon proves the hopelessness of any attempt to change the time-honoured religious creed; his priests identified him with the sun-god Re, whose cult-centre was thus merely transferred a few hundred miles to the South. Nor could even the violent religious revolution of Akhenaton (Amenophis IV.), of which we shall later have occasion to speak, sweep away for ever beliefs that had persisted for so many generations. But if the facts of the religion, broadly viewed, never under- went a change, the interpretation of those facts did so in no small degree. The religious books were for the most part written in archaic language, which was only imperfectly understood by the priests of later times; and hence great scope was given to them to exercise their ingenuity as commentators. By the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty some early chapters of the Book of the Dead had been provided with a triple commentary. Un- fortunately the methods pursued were as little reasonable as those adopted by the medieval Jewish Rabbis; instead of the context being studied as a whole, with a view to the recovery of its literal sense, each single verse was considered separately, and explained as an allusion to some obscure myth or as em- bodying some mystical meaning. Thus so far from simplifying or really elucidating the religion, these priestly labours tended rather to confuse one legend with another and to efface the personality of individual gods. The ease with which one god could be identified with another is perhaps the most striking characteristic of later Egyptian theology. There are but few of the greater deities who were not at some time or another identified with the solar god Re. His fusion with Horus and Etom has already been noted; further we find an Ammon-Re, a Sobk-Re, a Khnum-Re; and Month, Onouris, Show and Osiris are all described as possess- ing the attributes of the sun. Ptah was early assimilated to the sepulchral gods Sokaris and Osiris. Pairs of deities whose personalities are often blended or interchanged are Hathor and Nut, Sakhmi and Pakhe, Seth and Apophis. So too in Abydos, his later home, Osiris was identified with Khante-Amentiu (Khentamenti, Khentamenthes), " the chief of those who are in the West," a name that was given to a vaguely-conceived but widely-venerated divinity ruler of the dead. Many factors helped in the process of assimilation. The unity of the state was largely influential in bringing about the suppression of local differences of belief. The less important priesthoods were glad to enhance the reputation of the deity they served by identifying him with some more important god. And the mystical bent of the Egyptians found satisfaction in the multiplicity of forms that tfieir gods could assume; among the favourite epithets which the hymns apply to divinities are such as "mysterious of shapes," "multiple of faces." The goal towards which these tendencies verged was mono- theism; and though this goal was only once, and then quite ephemerally, reached, still the monotheistic idea was at most periods, so to speak, in the air. Sometimes the qualities com- mon to all the gods were abstracted, and the resultant notion spoken of as " the god." At other times, and especially in the hymns addressed to some divinity, all other gods were momentarily forgotten, and he was eulogized tendency. as " the only one," " the supreme," and so forth. Or else several of the chief deities were consciously combined and regarded as different emanations or aspects of a Sole Being; thus a Ramesside hymn begins with the words " Three are all the gods, Ammon, Re and Ptah," and then it is shown how these three gods, each in his own particular way, gave expression and effect to a single divine purpose. For a brief period at the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty a real monotheism, as exclusive as that of Judaism or of Islam, was adopted as the state religion of Egypt. The young Pharaoh Amenophis IV. seems to have been fired by *oa ea*~ genuine fanatical enthusiasm, though political motives, as well as doctrinal considerations, may have prompted him in the planning of his religious revolution (see also § History). The Theban god Ammon-Re was then supreme, and the ever- growing power of his priesthood may well have inflamed the jealousy of their Heliopolitan rivals. Amenophis began his reign in Thebes as an adherent of the traditional faith, but after a few years he abandoned that town and built a new capital for his god Aton 200 m. farther north, at a place now called El Amarna. The new deity was a personification of the sun's disk. The name Re was suppressed, as too intimately associated with that of Ammon; and Ammon, together with all the other gods, was put to the ban. Amenophis even changed his own name, of which the name of Ammon formed an element, to Akhenaton, " the brilliancy of the Aton," and the capital was called Khitaton, " The Horizon of the Aton." The new dogmas were known as " the Teaching," and their tenets, as revealed in the poems composed in honour of the Aton, breathe the purest and most exalted monotheistic spirit. The movement had, no doubt, met with serious opposition from the very start, and the reaction soon set in. The immediate successors of Akhenaton strove to follow in his footsteps, but the conservative nature of Egypt quickly asserted itself. Not sixty years after the accession of Akhenaton, his city was abandoned, its rulers branded as heretics, and the old religion restored in Thebes as completely as if the Aton had never existed. Having thus failed to become rational, Egyptian theology took refuge in learning. The need for a more spiritual and intel- lectual interpretation of the pantheon still remained, and gave rise to a number of theological sciences. The names of the gods and the places of their worship were catalogued and classified, and manuals were devoted to the topography of mythological regions. Much ingenuity was expended on the development of a history of the gods, the groundwork of which had been laid in much earlier times. Re was not only the creator of the world, but he was also the first king of Egypt. He was followed on the throne by the other eight members of his Ennead, then by the lesser Ennead and by other gods, and finally by the so-called " worshippers of Horus." The latter were not wholly mythical personages, though they were regarded as demigods (Manetho calls them " the dead," vtnvts); they have been shown to be none other than the dim rulers of the predynastic age. The Pharaohs of the historic period were thus divine, not only by virtue of their connexion with Horus (see above), but also as descendants of Re; and the king of Egypt was called " the good god " during his lifetime, and " the great god " after his death. The later religious literature is much taken up with the mythical and semi-mythical dynasties of kings, and the priests compiled, with many newly-invented details, the chronicles of the wars they were supposed to have waged. In a similar manner, the ethical and allegorical methods of interpretation came into much greater prominence towards the end of the New Kingdom. The Osirian legend, as we have already seen, was early accepted as symbolizing the conflict between good and evil. So too the victories of Re over the serpent named Apophis were more or less clearly understood as a simile of ANCIENT RELIGION) EGYPT 53 the antithetical nature of light and darkness. In one text at least as ancient as the XVllIth Dynasty(the copy that we have dates only from the Ethiopian period) an ingenious attempt is made to represent Ptah as the source of all life: from him, it is said, emanated Horus as " heart " or " mind " and Thoth as " tongue," and through the conjoint action of these two, the mind conceiving the design and the tongue uttering the creative command, all gods and men and beasts obtained their being. Of this kind of speculation much more must have existed than has reached us. It is doubtless such explanations as these that the Greeks had in view when they praised the wisdom of the ancient Egyptians; and in the classical period, similar semi-philosophical interpreta- - altogether supplanted, among the learned at least, the naive literal beliefs of earlier times. Plutarch in his treatise on Isis and Osiris well exemplifies this standpoint: for him every god and every rite is symbolic of some natural or moral truth. The final stages of the Egyptian religion are marked by a renewed popularity of all its more barbarous elements. Despair- ing, as it would seem, of discovering the higher wisdom that the more philosophic of the priests supposed that religion to conceal, the simpler-minded sought to work out their own salvation by restoring the worship of the gods to its most primitive forms. Hence came the fanatical revival of animal-worship which led to feud and bloodshed between neighbouring towns — a feature of Egyptian religion that at once amused and scandalized con- temporary Greek and Latin authors (Plut. De Iside, 72; Juv. xv. 33). Nevertheless Egyptian cults, and particularly those of Serapis and Isis, found welcome acceptance on European soil; and the shrines of Egyptian deities were established in all the great cities of the Roman Empire. Serapis was a god imported by the first Ptolemy from Sinope on the Black Sea, who soon lost his own identity by assimilation with Osiris-Apis, the bull revered in Memphis. Far down into the Roman age the worship of Serapis persisted and flourished, and it was only when the Serapeum of Alexandria was razed to the ground by order of Theodosius the Great (A.D. 391) that the death-blow of the old Egyptian religion was struck. ' Notes are here added on some divinities who have received in- adequate or no attention in the preceding pages. For information as to Ammon, AnubU, Apis. Bes, Bubastis, Buto, Isis and Thoth, reference must be made to the special articles on these gods. AESAPHES, in Egyptian Hartkafe, " he who is upon his lake," the ram-headed god of Heracleopolis Magna, gained an ephemeral importance during the IXth Dynasty, which arose from his town. Outwardly, be resembles Khnum. Little is known about him, and he is seldom mentioned. The burial-place of his priests in later time* was in 1904 discovered at Abusir el Meleq. CHOXS, "he who travels -by boat," perhaps originally a mere epithet of the moon-god loh or Thoth, is chiefly familiar as the third member of the Thcban triad. As such he is represented as a youthful god, wearing a skull-cap surmounted by the moon. His cult was revived ana became popular in Ptolemaic times. A curious story about the sending of his statue to Mesopotamia to heal a daughter of the tone of Bakhtan is related upon a stele that purports to date from the Kamesnde period : it has been proved to be a pious fraud invented by the priests not earlier than the Greek period. HATHOE, whose name means " house of Horus,' was at all times a very important deity. She is depicted as a cow, or with a broad human countenance, the cow's ears just showing from under a massive wig. Probably at first a goddess of the sky, she is early mentioned in connexion with Re. Later she was often identified with las, and her name was used to designate foreign goddesses like thaw of Pupni and Bybjus. Unlike most cosmic deities, she was worshipped in many localities, chief among which was Dendera, where her magnificent temple, of Ptolemaic date, still stands. " The seven Hatbors " is a name given to certain fairies, who appeared shortly after the birth of an infant, and predicted his future. KIIM-M or KHNOUM, a ram-headed god, whose principal place of worship was the island of Elephantine (there associated with Satis and Anukis). but also revered elsewhere, e.g. together with Ncbtu in Ema. He enjoyed great repute as a creator, and was supposed to me the potter's wheel for the purpose. In this capacity he is sometimes accompanied by the frog-headed goddess Hekct. MOXTH, a hawk-beaded god of the Thebaid : in Thebes itself his rult was superseded by that of Ammon. but it persisted in Her- monthis. He was often given the solar attributes, and was credited as a great warrior. Mix, the god of Coptos and Panopolis (Akhmim), seems to have been early looked upon as a deity of the harvest and crops. His cult dates from the earliest times. Represented as ithyphallic, with two tail plumes on his head, the right arm upraised and bearing a scourge. In old times he is identified with Horus: later Ammon was confused with him, and depicted in his image. NECHBET (Nekhbi, Nekhebi), the vulture-goddess of El Kab, called Eileithyia by the Greeks. She gained an ascendancy as patroness of the south at the time when the two kingdoms were striving for the mastery. It is as such, in opposition to Buto the goddess of the north, that she is most often named on the monuments. NBITH, the very ancient and important goddess of Sais, the Greek Athene. On the earliest monuments she is represented by a shield transfixed by arrows. Later she wears the crown of Lower Egypt, and carries in her hands a bow and arrows, a sign of her warlike character. In the XXVIth Dynasty, when a line of Pharaohs sprang from Sais, she regained a prominent position, and was given many cosmogonic attributes, including the title of mother of Re. NEPHTHVS, the sister of Osiris and wife of Seth, daughter of Keb and Nut, plays a considerable rdle in the Osiris story. She sided with Isis and aided her to bring Osiris back to life. Isis and Nephthys are often mentioned together as protectresses of the dead. ONOURIS, Egyptian En-hurt, " sky-bearer," the god of Thinis. Later identified with Shu (Show), who holds heaven and earth apart. PTAH, the Hephaestus of the Greeks, a demiurgic and creative god, special patron of hand-workers and artisans. Worshipped in Mempnis, he perhaps owed his importance more to the political prominence of that town than to anything else. He was early identified with an ancient but obscure god Tenen, and further with the sepulchral deity Sokaris. He is represented either as a closely enshrouded figure whose protruding hands grasp a composite sceptre, the whole standing on a pedestal within a shrine; or else as a misshapen dwarf. SAKHMI, a lion-headed goddess of war and strife, whose name signifies the mighty. She was worshipped at Latopolis (Esna), but also at a late date as a member of the Memphite triad, with Ptah as hu-lianil and Nefertem (Iphthimis) as son : often, too, confounded with Ubasti. SETH (Egyptian Set, Stb or StS), by the Greeks called Typhon, was depicted as an animal yvj that has been compared with the jerboa by some, and with the okapi by others, but which the Egyptians themselves occasionally conceived to be nothing but a badly drawn ass. In historic times his cult was celebrated at Tanis and Ombos. He regained a certain prestige as god of the Hyksos rulers, and two Pharaohs of the XlXth Dynasty derived their name Scthos (Seti) from him. But, generally speaking, he was abominated as a power of evil, and his figure was often obliterated on the monu- ments. He is named in similes as a great warrior, and as such and " son of Nut " he is identified with the Syrian Baal. 4. The Divine Cult. — In the midst of every town rose the temple of the local god, a stately building of stone, strongly contrasting with the mud and plaster houses in which even the wealthiest Egyptians dwelt. It was called the " house of the god " ( | ' V and in it the deity was supposed to reside, attended by his " servants " ( | y ) the priests. There was indeed a certain justification for this contention, even when a contrary theory assigned to the divinity a place in the sky, as in the case of the lunar divinity Thoth; for in the inmost sanctuary stood a statue of the god, which served as his representative for the purposes of the cult. Originally each temple was dedicated to one god only; but it early became usual to associate with him a mate of •the opposite sex, besides a third deity who might be represented either as a second wife or as a child. As examples of such triads, as they are called, may be mentioned that of Thebes, consisting of Ammon, Mut and Chons, father, mother and child; and as typical of the other kind, where a god was accompanied by two goddesses, that of Elephantine, consisting of Khnum, Satis and Anukis. The needs of the god were much the same as those of mortals; no more than they could he dispense with food and drink, clothes for his apparel, ointment for his limbs, and music and dancing to rejoice his heart. The only difference was that the divine statue was half-consciously recognized as a lifeless thing that required carefully regulated rites and ceremonies to enable it to enjoy the good things offered to it. Early every morning the officiating priest proceeded to the holy of holies, after the preliminaries of purification had cleansed him from any miasma that might interfere with the efficacy of the rites. Then with the prescribed gestures, and reciting appropriate formulae all the while, he broke the seal upon the door of the shrine, loosed the bolts, and at last stood lace to face with the 54 EGYPT [ANCIENT RELIGION god. There followed a series of prostrations and adorations, culminating in the offering of a small image of Maat, the goddess of Truth. This seems to have been the psychological moment of the entire service: hitherto the statue had been at best a god in posse; now the symbolical act placed him in possession of all his faculties, he was a god in truth, and could participate like any mortal in the food and luxuries jthat his servants put before him. The daily ceremony closed with ablutions, anoint- ings and a bountiful feast of bread, geese, beer and oxen; having taken his fill of these, the god returned to his shrine until the next morning, when the ritual was renewed. The words that accompanied the manual gestures are, in the rituals that have come down to us, wholly dominated by the myth of Osiris: it is often hard to discern much connexion between the acts and the formulae recited, but the main thought is clearly that the priest represents Horus, the pious son of the dead divinity Osiris. That this conception is very old is proved by the fact that even in the Pyramid texts " the eye of Horus " is a synonym for all offerings: an ancient tale of which only shreds have reached us related how Seth had torn the eye of Horus from him, though not before he himself had suffered a still more serious mutilation; and by some means, we know not how, the restoration of the eye was instrumental in bringing about the vindication of Osiris. As to the manual rites of the daily cult, all that can here be said is that incense, purifications and anoint- ings with various oils played a large part ; the sacrifices consisted chiefly of slaughtered oxen and geese; burnt offerings were a very late innovation. At an early date the rites practised hi the various temples were conformed to a common pattern. This holds good not only for the daily ritual, but also for many festivals that were cele- brated on the same day throughout the whole length of the land. Such were the calendrical feasts, called " the beginnings of the seasons," and including, for example, the monthly and half- monthly festivals, that of the New Year and that of the rising of Sirius (Sothis). But there were also local feast days like that of Neith in Sais (Hdt. ii. 62) or that of Ammon in southern Opi (Luxor). These doubtless had a more individual character, and often celebrated some incident supposed to have occurred in the lifetime of the god. Sometimes, as in the case of the feast of Osiris in Abydos, a veritable drama would be enacted, in which the whole history of the god, his sufferings and final triumph were represented in mimic form. At other times the ceremonial was more mysterious and symbolical, as in the feast of the ** raising of the Ded-column u when a column of the kind was drawn by cords into an upright position. But the most common feature of these holy days was the procession of the god, when he was carried on the shoulders of the priests in his divine boat far beyond the precincts of his temple; sometimes, indeed, even to another town, where he paid a visit to the god of the place. These occasions were public holidays, and passed amid great rejoicings. The climax was reached when at a given moment the curtains of the shrine placed on the boat were withdrawn, and the god was revealed to the eyes of the awe-struck multitude. Music and dancing formed part of the festival rites. As with the rites and ceremonies, so also the temples were early modelled upon a common type. Lofty enclosure walls, Corned with scenes from the victorious campaigns of the Pharaoh, shut off the sacred buildings from the surrounding streets. A small gateway between two massive towers or pylons gave admittance to a spacious forecourt open to the sky, into which the people were allowed to enter at least on feast days. Farther on, separated from the forecourt by smaller though still massive pylons, lay a hypostyle hall, so called from its covered colonnades; this hall was used for all kinds of processions. Behind the hypostyle hall, to which a second similar one might or might not be added, came the holy of holies, a dark narrow chamber where the god dwelt; none but the priests were admitted to it. All around lay the storehouses that contained the treasures of the god and the appurtenances of the divine ritual. The temples of the earliest times were of course Temple* far more primitive than this: from the pictures that are all that is now left to indicate their nature, they seem to have been little more than huts or sheds in which the image of the god was kept. One temple of a type different from that above described has survived at Abusir, where it has been excavated by German explorers. It was a splendid edifice dedicated to the sun-god Re by a king of the Vth Dynasty, and was probably a close copy of the famous temple of Heliopolis. The most conspicuous feature was a huge obelisk on a broad superstructure fl : the CH obelisk always remained closely connected with the solar worship, and probably took the place of the innermost shrine and statue of other temples. The greater part of the sanctuary was left uncovered, as best befitted a dwelling-place of the sun. Outside its walls there was a huge brick model of the solar bark in which the god daily traversed the heavens. As the power of the Pharaohs increased, the maintenance of the cult became one of the most important affairs of state. The most illustrious monarchs prided themselves no less on the build- ings they raised in honour of the gods than on the successful wars they waged: indeed the wars won a religious significance through the gradual elevation of the god of the capital to god of the nation, and a large part of the spoils was considered the rightful perquisite of the latter. Countless were the riches that the kings heaped upon the gods in the hope of being requited with long life and prosperity on the throne of the living. It became the theory that the temples were the gifts of the Pharaoh to his fathers the gods, and therefore in the scenes of the cult that adorn the inner walls it is always he who is depicted as performing the ceremonies. As a matter of fact the priesthoods were much .more independent than was allowed to appear. Successive grants of land placed no small l£™ef ol portion of the entire country in their hands, and the priests. administration of the temple estates gave employment to a large number of officials and serfs. In the New Kingdom the might of the Theban god Ammon gradually became a serious menace to the throne: hi the reign of Rameses III. he could boast of more than 80,000 dependants, and more than 400,000 cattle. It is not surprising that a few generations later the high priests of Ammon supplanted the Pharaohs altogether and founded a dynasty of their own. At no period did the priests form a caste that was quite distinctly separated from the laity. In early times the feudal lords were themselves the chief priests of the local temples. Under them stood a number of subordinate priests, both pro- fessional and lay. Among the former were the kher-heb, a learned man entrusted with the copduct of the ceremonies, and the " divine fathers," whose functions are obscure. The lay priests were divided into four classes that undertook the manage- ment of the temple in alternate months; their collective name was the " hour-priesthood." Perhaps it was to them that the often recurring title oueb, " the pure," should properly be restricted, though strict rules as to personal purity, dress and diet were demanded of all priests. The personnel of the temple was completed by various subordinate officials, doorkeepers, attendants and slaves. In the New Kingdom the leading priests were more frequently mere clerics than theretofore, though for instance the high priest of Ammon was often at the same time the vizier of southern Egypt. In some places the highest priests bore special names, such as the Otter maa, " the Great Seer," of Re in Heliopolis, or the Khorp himel, " chief artificer," of the Memphite Ptah. Women could also hold priestly rank, though apparently in early times only in the service of goddesses; " priestess of Hathor " is a frequent title of well-born ladies in the Old Kingdom. At a later date many wealthy dames held the office of " musicians " (shemat) in the various temples. In the service of the Theban Ammon two priestesses called " the Adorer of the God " and the " Wife of the God " occupied very influential positions, and towards the Sake period it was by no means unusual for the king to secure these offices for his daughters and so to strengthen his own royal title. 5. The Dead and their Cult. — While the worship of the gods ANCIENT RELIGION] EGYPT 55 tended more and more to become a monoply of the state and the priests, and provided no adequate outlet for the religious cravings of the people themselves, this deficiency was amply supplied by the care which they bestowed upon their dead: the Egyptians stand alone among the nations of the world in the elaborate precautions which they took to secure their own welfare beyond the tomb. The belief in immortality, or perhaps rather the incapacity to grasp the notion of complete annihilation, is traceable from the very earliest times: the simplest graves of the prehistoric period, when the corpses were committed to the earth in sheepskins and reed mats, seldom lack at least a few poor vases or articles of toilet for use in the hereafter. In proportion as the prosperity of the land increased, and the advance of civilization afforded the technical means, so did these primitive burials give place to a more lavish funereal equipment. Tombs of brick with a single chamber were suc- ceeded by tombs of stone with several chambers, until they really merited the name of " houses of eternity " that the Egyptians gave to them. The conception of the tomb as the residence of the dead is the fundamental notion that underlies all the ritual observances in connexion with the dead, just as the idea of the temple as the dwelling-place of the god is the basis of the divine cult. The parallelism between the attitude of the Egyptians towards the dead and their attitude towards the gods is so striking that it ought never to be lost sight of: nothing can illustrate it better than the manner in which the Osirian doctrines came to permeate both kinds of cult. The general scheme of Egyptian tombs remained the same throughout the whole of the dynastic period, though there were r,—^ many variations of detail. By preference they were built in the Western desert, the Amente, near the place where the sun was seen to go to rest, and which seemed the natural entrance to the nether world. A deep pit led down to the sepulchral chamber where the dead man was deposited amid the funereal furniture destined for his use; and no device was neglected that might enable him to rest here undisturbed. This aim is particularly conspicuous in the pyramids, the gigantic tombs which the Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom constructed for themselves: the passages that lead to the burial chamber were barred at intervals by vast granite blocks, and the narrow opening that gave access to them was hidden from view beneath the stone casing of the pyramid sides. Quite separate from this part of the tomb lay the rooms employed for the cult of the dead: their walls were often adorned with pictures from the earthly life of the deceased, which it was hoped he might still continue to enjoy after death. The innermost chamber was the chapel proper: on its western side was sculptured an imitation door for the dead man to pass through, when he wished to participate in the offerings brought by pious relatives. It was of course only the few who could afford elaborate tombs of the kind: the poor had to make shift with an unpretentious grave, in which the corpse was placed enveloped only by a few rags or endostd in a rough wooden coffin. The utmost care was taken to preserve the body itself from decay. Before the time of the Middle Kingdom it became usual _ . . for the rich to have ttheir bodies embalmed. The intestines were removed and placed in four vases (the so-called Canopic jars) in which they were supposed to enjoy the protection of the four sons of Horus, the hheaded Mesti, the ape-headed Hapi, the jackal Duamutef and the falcon Kebhsenuf. The corpse was treated with natron and asphalt, and wound in a copious swathing of linen bandage, with a mask of linen and stucco on the face. The " mummy " thus prepared was then laid on its side like a sleeper, the head supported by a head-rest, in a sarcophagus of wood or stone. The operations in connexion with the mummy grow more and more elaborate towards the end of the Pharaonic period: already in the New Kingdom the wealthiest persons had their mummies laid in several coffins, each of which was gaudily painted with mythological scenes and inscriptions. The costliest process of embalmment lasted no less than seventy days. Many superstitious rites had to be observed in the course of the process: a late book has preserved to us the magical formulae that were repeated by the wise kher-heb priest (who in the necropolis per/ormed the functions of taricheutes, "embalmer"), as each bandage was applied. A large number of utensils, articles of furniture and the like were placed in the burial-chamber for the use of the dead — jars, weapons, mirrors, and even chairs, musical instruments and wigs. In the early times statuettes of servants, representing them as engaged in their various functions (brewers, bakers, &c.), were included for the same purpose; they were supposed to perform their menial functions for their deceased lord in the future life. In the Middle Kingdom these are gradually replaced by small models of the mummy itself, and the belief arose that when their owner was called upon to perform any distasteful work in the nether world, they would answer to his name and do the task for him. The later ushebti-figures, little statuettes of wood, stone or faience, of which several hundreds are often found in a single tomb, are confused survivals of both of the earlier classes of statuettes. Still more important than all such funereal objects are the books that were placed in the grave for the use of the dead: in the pyramids they are written on the walls of the sepulchral chamber and the passages leading to it; in the Middle Kingdom usually inscribed on the inner sides of the sarcophagus; in later times contained in rolls of papyrus. The Pyramid texts and the Book of the Dead are the most im- portant of these, and teach us much about the dangers and needs that attended the dead man beyond the tomb, and about the manner in which it was thought they could be counteracted. The burial ceremony itself must have been an imposing spectacle. In many cases the mummy had to be conveyed across the Nile, and boats were gaily decked out for this purpose. On the western bank a stately procession conducted the deceased to his last resting-place. At the door of the tomb the final ceremonies were performed; they demanded a considerable number of actors, chief among whom were the «f»-priest and the kher-heb priest. It was a veritable drama that was here enacted, and recalled in its incidents the story of Osiris, the divine proto- type of all successive generations of the Egyptian dead. However carefully the preliminary rites of embalmment and burial might have been performed, however sumptuous the tomb wherein the dead man reposed, he was never- theless almost entirely at the mercy of the living for his welfare in the other world: he was as dependent on a con- tinued cult on the part of the surviving members of his family as the gods were dependent on the constant attendance of their priests. That portion of a man's individuality which required, even after death, food and drink, and the satisfaction of sensuous needs, was called by the Egyptians the ka, and represented in hieroglyphs by the uplifted hands J_J. This ka was supposed to be born together with the person to whom it belonged, and on the very rare occasions when it is depicted, wears his exact semblance. The conception of this psychical entity is too vaguely formulated by the Egyptians and too foreign to modern thought to admit of exact translation: of the many renderings that have been proposed, perhaps " double " is the most suitable. At all events the ka has to be distinguished from the soul, the bai (in hierogl vphs^v or >\ ), which was of more tangible nature, and might be descried hovering around the tomb in the form of a bird or in some other shape; for it was thought that the soul might assume what shape it would, if the funerary rites had been duly attended to. The gods had their ka and bai, and the forms attributed to the latter are surprising; thus we read that the soul of the sky Nun is Re, that of Osiris the Goat of Mendes, the souls of Sobk are crocodiles, and those " of all the gods are snakes "; similarly the soul of Ptah was thought to dwell in the Apis bull, so that each successive Apis was during its lifetime the reincarnation of the god. Other parts of a man's being to which at given moments and in particular contexts the Egyptians assigned a certain degree of separate existence are the " name " EGYPT [ANCIENT RELIGION ran, the " shadow " T **, khaibet, and the " corpse " , khat. It was, however, the ka alone to which the cult of the dead was directly addressed. This cult was a positive duty binding on the children of a dead man, and doubtless as a rule discharged by them with some regularity and conscientiousness; at least, on feast-days offerings would be brought to the tomb, and the ceremonies of purification and opening the mouth of the deceased would be enacted. But there could be little guarantee that later generations would perpetuate the cult. It therefore became usual under the Old Kingdom for the wealthiest persons to make testamentary dispositions by which certain other persons agreed for a consideration to observe the required rites at stated periods: they received the name of " servants of the ka," and stood in the same relation to the deceased as the priests to the gods. Or again, contracts might be made with a neighbouring temple, the priesthood of which bound itself to reserve for the contracting party some portion of the offerings that had already been used for the divine cult. .There is probably a superstitious reason for the preference shown by the dead for offerings of this kind; no wish is commoner than that one may receive " bread and beer that had gone up on to the altar of the local god," or " with which the god had been sated "; something of the divine sanctity still clung about such offerings and made them particularly desirable. In spite of all the precautions they took and the contracts they made, the Egyptians could never quite rid them- selves of the dread that their tombs might decay and their cult be neglected; and they sought therefore to obtain by prayers and threats what they feared they might lose altogether. The occasional visitor to the tomb is reminded by its inscriptions of the many virtues of the dead man while he yet lived, and is charged, if he be come with empty hands, at least to pronounce the funerary formula; it will indeed cost him nothing but " the breath of his mouth"! Against the would-be desecrator the wrath of the gods is invoked: " with him shall the great god reckon there where a reckoning is made." The funerary customs that have been described are meaning- less except on the supposition that the tomb was the regular dwelling-place of the dead. But just as the Egyptians found no contradiction between the view of the temple as the residence of the god and the conception of him as a cosmic deity, so too they often attributed to the dead a continued existence quite apart from the tomb. According to a widely-spread doctrine of great age the deceased Egyptian was translated to the heavens, where he lived on in the form of a star. This theme is elaborated with great detail in the Pyramid texts, where it is the dead king to whom this destiny is promised. It was perhaps only a restricted aristocracy who could aspire to such high honour: the <|\ ikh, or " glorified being," who has his place in the sky seems often to hold an intermediate position between the gods and the rank and file of the dead. But in a few early passages the required qualification appears to be rather moral integrity than exalted station. The life of the dead man in the sky is variously envisaged in different texts: at one moment he is spoken of as accompanying the sun-god in his celestial bark, at another as a mighty king more powerful than Re himself; the crudest fancy of all pictures him as a hunter who catches the stars and gods, and cooks and eats them. According to another conception that persisted in the imagination of the Egyptians longer than any of the ideas just mentioned, the home of the dead in the heavens was a fertile region not very different form Egypt itself, intersected by canals and abounding in corn and fruit; this place was called the Sokhet Earu or "field of Reeds." Even in the oldest texts these beliefs are blended inextricably with the Osirian doctrines. It is not so much as king of the dead that Osiris here appears, but every deceased Egyptian was regarded as himself an Osiris, as having undergone all the indignities inflicted upon the god, but finally triumphant over- the powers of death and evil impersonated by Seth. This notion became so popular, that beside it all other views of the dead sink into insignificance; it permeates the funerary cult in all its stages, and from the Middle Kingdom onwards the dead man is regularly called " the Osiris so-and-so," just as though he were completely identical with the god. One incident of the tale of Osiris acquired a deep ethical meaning in connexion with the dead. It was related how Seth had brought an accusation against Osiris in the great judgment hall of Heliopolis, and how the latter, helped by the skilful speaker Thoth, had emerged from the ordeal acquitted and triumphant. The belief gradually grew up that every dead man would have to face a similar trial before he could be admitted to a life of bliss in the other world. A well- known vignette in the Book of the Dead depicts the scene. In a shrine sits Osiris, the ruler and judge of the dead, accompanied by forty-two assessors; and before him stands the balance on which the heart of the deceased man is to be weighed against Truth; Thoth stands behind and registers the result. The words that accompany this picture are still more remarkable : they form a long negative confession, in which the dead man declares that he has sinned neither against man nor against the gods. Not all the sins named are equally heinous according to modern conceptions; many of them deal with petty offences against religious usages that seem to us but trifling. But it is clear that by the time this chapter was penned it was believed that no man could attain to happiness in the hereafter if he had not been upright, just and charitable in his earthly existence. The date at which these conceptions became general is not quite certain, but it can hardly be later than the Middle Kingdom, when the dead man has the epithet " justified " appended to his name in the inscriptions of his tomb. It was but a natural wish on the part of the Egyptians that they should desire to place their tombs near the traditional burying-place of Osiris. By the time of the Xllth Dynasty it was thought that this lay in Abydos, the town where the kings of the earliest times had been interred. But it was only in a few cases that such a wish could be literally fulfilled. It therefore became customary for those who possessed the means to dedicate at least a tombstone in the neighbourhood of " the staircase of the great god," as the sacred spot was called. And those who had found occasion to visit Abydos in their lifetime took pleasure in recalling the part that they had there taken in the ceremonies of Osiris. Such pilgrims doubtless believed that the pious act would stand to their credit when the day of death arrived. 6. Magic. — Among the rites that were celebrated in the temples or before the statues of the dead were many the mystical meaning of which was but imperfectly understood, though their efficacy was never doubted. Symbolical or imitative acts, accompanied by spoken formulae of set form and obscure content, accom- plished, by some peculiar virtues of their own, results that were beyond the power of human hands and brain. The priests and certain wise men were the depositaries of this mysterious but highly useful art, that was called hik or " magic "; and one of the chief differences between gods and men was the superior degree in which the former were endowed with magical powers. It was but natural that the Egyptians should wish to employ magic for their own benefit or self -gratification, and since religion put no veto on the practice so long as it was exercised within legal bounds, it was put to a widespread use among them. When magicians made figures of wax representing men whom they desired to injure, this was of course an illegal act like any other, and the law stepped in to prevent it: one papyrus that has been preserved records the judicial proceedings taken in such a case in connexion with the harem conspiracy against Rameses III. One of the chief purposes for which magic was employed was to avert diseases. Among the Egyptians, as in other lands, illnesses were supposed to be due to evil spirits or the ghosts of dead men who had taken up their abode in the body of the ufferer, and they could only be driven thence by charms and spells. But out of these primitive notions arose a real medical ANCIENT LANGUAGE] EGYPT 57 science: when the ailment could be located and its nature roughly determined, a more materialistic view was taken of it; and many herbs and drugs that were originally used for some superstitious reason, when once they had been found to be actually effective, easily lost their magical significance and were looked upon as natural specifics. It is extremely hard to draw any fixed line in Egypt between magic and medicine; but it is curious to note that simple ^'•frmft and prescriptions were employed for the more curable diseases, while magical formulae and amulets are reserved for those that are harder to cope with, such as the bites of snakes and the stings of scorpions. The formulae recited for such purposes are not purely cabalistic, though inasmuch as mystery is of the very essence of magic, foreign words and outlandish names occur in them by preference. Often the magician relates some mythical case where a god had been afflicted with a disease similar to that of the patient, but had finally recovered: a number of such tales were told of Horus, who was usually healed by some device of his mother Isis, she being accounted as a great enchantress. The mere recitation of such similar cases with their happy issue was supposed to be magically effective; for almost unlimited power was supposed to be inherent in mere words. Often the demon is directly invoked, and commanded to come forth. At other times the gods are threatened with privations or even destruction if they refuse to aid the magician: the Egyptians seem to have found little impiety in such a use of the divine name, though to us it would seem the utmost degree of profanity when, for instance, a magician declares that if his spell prove ineffective, he " will cast fire into Mendes and burn up Osiris." The verbal spells were always accompanied by some manual performance, the tying of magical knots or the preparation of an amulet. In these acts particular significance was attached to certain numbers: a sevenfold knot, for example, was more efficacious than others. Often the formula was written on a strip of rag or a scrap of papyrus and tied round the neck of the person for whom it was intended. Beads and all kino's of amulets could be infused with magical power so as to be potent phylacteries to those who wore them. In conclusion, it must be emphasized that in Egypt magic stands in no contrast or opposition to religion, at least as long as it was legitimately used. The religious rites and ceremonies are full of it. When a pretence was made of opening, with an iron instrument, the mouth of the divine statue, to the accom- paniment of recited formulae, this can hardly be termed anything but magic. Similarly, the potency attributed to i«A«6/t-figures and the copies of the Book of the Dead deposited in the tombs is magical in quality. What has been considered under this heading, however, is the use that the same principles of magic were put to by men in their own practical life and for their own advantage. AUTHOMTIES.— An excellent list of books and articles on the various topics connected with Egyptian Religion will be found in H. O. Lange's article on the subject in P.O. Chantepie de la Saussaye, Lekrbiuk der Relitionsgeschifhle (Tubingen, 1905), vol. i. pp. 172- 245. Among general works may be especially recommended A. Kmua, Die ieypliscke Religion (Berlin. 1905); and chapters 2 and 3 in G. Maspero, Hiitmrc ancienne da peuptes de I'Orient, Its ongimti, voL L (Paris, 1895). (A. H. G.) D. Egyptian Language and Writing. — Decipherment. — Jtbough attempts were made to read Egyptian hiero- glyphs to far back as the i;th century, no promise of success appeared untfl the discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1709 by the French engineers attached to Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. This tablet was inscribed with three versions, in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek, of a long decree of the Egyptian priests in honour of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes and his wife Cleopatra. The Greek and demotic versions were still almost perfect, but most of the hieroglyphic text had been broken away with the top of the tablet; portions of about half of the lines remained, but no single line was complete. In 1802 D. Akerblad, a Swedish orientalist attached to the embassy in Paris, identified the proper names of persons which occurred in the demotic text, being guided to them by the position of their equivalents in the Greek. These names, all of them foreign, were written in an alphabet of a limited number of characters, and were therefore analysed with comparative ease. The hieroglyphic text upon the Rosetta stone was too frag- mentary to furnish of itself the key to the decipherment. But the study of this with the other scanty monuments and imperfect copies of inscriptions that were available enabled the celebrated physicist Thomas Young (1773-1829) to make a beginning. In an article completed in 1819 and printed (over the initials I. J.) in the supplement to the 4th, sth and 6th editions of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (vol. iv., 1824), he published a brief account of Egyptian research, with five plates containing the " rudiments of an Egyptian vocabulary." It appears that Young could place the hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek texts of the Rosetta stone very correctly parallel; but he could not Accur- ately break up the Egyptian sentences into words, much less could he attribute to the words their proper sounds. Yet he recognized correctly the names of Apis and Re, with many groups for words such as " assembly," " good," " name," and important signs such as those which distinguish feminine words. In a bad copy of another monument he rightly guessed the royal name of Berenice in its cartouche by the side of that of Ptolemy, which was already known from its occurrence on the Rosetta stone. He considered that these names must be written in phonetic characters in the hieroglyphic as in demotic, but he failed to analyse them correctly. It was clear, however, that with more materials and perseverance such efforts after decipher- ment must eventually succeed. Meanwhile J. F. Champollion " le Jeune " (see CHAMPOLLION; and Hartleben, Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk, Berlin, 1906) had devoted his energies whole-heartedly since 1802, when he was only eleven years old, to preparing himself for the solution of the Egyptian problem, by wide linguistic and historical studies, and above all by familiarizing himself with every scrap of Egyptian writing which he could find. ByiSiShe made many equations between the demotic and the hieroglyphic characters, and was able to transcribe the demotic names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra into hieroglyphics. At length, in January 1822, a copy of the hieroglyphic inscription on the Bankes obelisk, which had long been fruitlessly in the hands of Young, reached the French savant. On the base of this obelisk was engraved a Greek inscription in honour of Ptolemy Euergetes II. and Cleopatra; of the two cartouches on the obelisk one was of Ptolemy, the other was easily recognized as that of Cleopatra, spelt nearly as in Champollion's experimental transcript of the demotic name, only more fully. This discovery, and the recog- nition of the name Alexander, gave fourteen alphabetic signs, including homophones, with ascertained values. Starting from these, by the beginning of September Champollion had analysed a long series of Ptolemaic and Roman cartouches. His next triumph was on the i4th of September, when he read the names of the ancient Pharaohs Rameses and Tethmosis in some drawings just arrived from Egypt, proving that his alphabetic characters were employed, in conjunction with syllabic signs, for spelling native names; this gave him the assurance that his discovery touched the essential nature of the Egyptian writing and not merely, as had been contended, a special cipher for the foreign words which might be quite inapplicable to the rest of the inscriptions. His progress continued unchecked, and before the end of the year the connexion of ancient Egyptian and Coptic was clearly established. Subsequently visits to the museums of Italy and an expedition to Egypt in 1828-1829 fur- nished Champollion with ample materials. The Precis du systtme hieroglyphique (ist ed. 1823, 2nd ed. 1828) contained the philo- logical results of his decipherments down to a certain point. But his MS. collections were vast, and his illness after the strenuous labours of the expedition and his early death in 1832 left all in confusion. The Grammaire Igyptienne and Diclionnaire egyptien, edited from these MSS. by his brother, precious as they were, must be a very imperfect register of the height of his attainments. In his last years he was able to translate long texts in hieroglyphic and in hieratic of the New Kingdom and EGYPT [ANCIENT LANGUAGE of the later periods with some accuracy, and his comprehension of demotic was considerable. Champollion outdistanced all his competitors from the first, and had practically nothing to thank them for except material to work on, and too often that had been intentionally withheld from him. In eleven years he broke ground in all directions; if the ordinary span of life had been allowed him, with twenty or thirty more years of labour he might have brought order into the chaos of different ages and styles of language and writing; but, as it was, the task of co-ordination remained to be done by others. For one year, before his illness incapacitated him, Champollion held a professorship in Paris; but of his pupils and fellow-workers, F. P. Salvolini, insincere and self-seeking, died young, and IppolitoRosellini (1800-1843) showed little original power. From 1832 to 1837 there was a pause in the march of Egyptology, and it seemed as if the young science might be overwhelmed by the storm of doubts and detrac- tion that was poured upon it by the enemies of Champollion. Then, however, Lepsius in Germany and Samuel Birch in England took up the thread where the master had dropped it, and E. de Roug6, H. Brugsch, Francois Joseph Chabas and a number of lesser lights quickly followed. Brugsch (q.v.) was the author of a hieroglyphic and demotic dictionary which still holds the field, and from time to time carried forward the study of demotic by a giant's stride. De Rouge (d. 1872) in France was a brilliant translator of hieroglyphic texts and the author of an important grammatical work. Chabas (1817-1882) especially addressed himself to the reading of the hieratic texts of the New Kingdom. By such labours after forty years the results attained by Cham- pollion in decipherment were entirely superseded. Yet, while the values of the signs were for the most part well ascertained, and the meanings of most works fixed with some degree of accuracy, few grammatical rules had as yet been established, the varieties of the language at different periods had not been defined, and the origins of the hieroglyphs and of their values had not been investigated beyond the most obvious points. At this time a rare translator of Egyptian texts in all branches was arising in G. Maspero (q.v.), while E. Revillout addressed himself with success to the task of interpreting the legal docu- ments of demotic which had been almost entirely neglected for thirty years. But the honour of inaugurating an epoch marked by greater precision belongs to Germany. The study of Coptic had begun in Europe early in the i7th century, and reached a high level in the work of the Dane Georg Zoega (1755-1809) at the end of the i8th century. In 1835, too late for Champollion to use it, Amadeo Peyron (1785-1870) of Turin published a Coptic lexicon of great merit which is still standard, though far from satisfying the needs of scholars of the present day. In 1880 Ludwig Stern (Koptische Grammatik) admirably classified the grammatical forms of Coptic. The much more difficult task of recovering the grammar of Egyptian has occupied thirty years of special study by Adolf Erman and his school at Berlin, and has now reached an advanced stage. The greater part of Egyptian texts after the Middle Kingdom having been written in what was even then practically a dead language, as dead as Latin was to the medieval monks in Italy who wrote and spoke it, Erman selected for special investigation those texts which really represented the growth of the language at different periods, and, as he passed ffom one epoch to another, comp'ared and consolidated his results. The Neuagyptische Grammatik (1880) dealt with texts written in the vulgar dialect of the New Kingdom (Dyns. XVIII. to XX.). Next followed, in the Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache und Alter- thumskunde, studies on the Old Kingdom inscription of Una, and the Middle Kingdom contracts of Assiut, as well as on an " Old Coptic " text of the 3rd century A.D. At this point a papyrus of stories written in the popular language of the Middle Kingdom provided Erman with a stepping-stone from Old Egyptian to the Late Egyptian of the Neudgyptische Grammatik, and gave the connexions that would bind solidly together the whole structure of Egyptian grammar (see Sprache des Papyrus Westcar, 1889). The very archaic pyramid texts enabled him to sketch the grammar of the earliest known form of Egyptian (Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellschaft, 1892), and in 1894 he was able to write a little manual of Egyptian for beginners (Agyptische Grammatik, 2nd ed., 1902), centring on the language of the standard inscriptions of the Middle and New Kingdoms, but accompanying the main sketch with references to earlier and later forms. Of the work of Erman's pupils we may mention G. Steindorff's little Koptische Grammatik (1894, ed. 1904), improving greatly on Stern's standard work in regard to phonology and the relationship of Coptic forms to Egyptian, and K. Sethe's Das Agyptische Verbum (1899). The latter is an extensive monograph on the verb in Egyptian and Coptic by a brilliant and laborious philolo- gist. Owing to the very imperfect notation of sound in the writing, the highly important subject of the verbal roots and verbal forms was perhaps the obscurest branch of Egyptian grammar when Sethe first attacked it in 1895. The subject has been reviewed by Erman, Die Flexion des agyptischen Verbums in the Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy, 1900. The Berlin school, having settled the main lines of the grammar, next turned its attention to lexicography. It has devised a scheme, founded on that for the Latin Thesaurus of the Berlin Academy, which almost mechanically sorts the whole number of occurrences of every word in any text examined. Scholars in England, America and Denmark, as well as in Germany, have taken part in this great enterprise, and though the completion of it may be far off, the collections of classified material already made are very valuable for consultation.1 At present Egyptologists depend on Heinrich Brugsch's admirable but somewhat antiquated Worterbuch and on Levi's useful but entirely uncritical Vocabolario. Though demotic has not yet received serious attention at Berlin, the influence of that great school has made itself felt amongst demotists, especially in Switzerland, Germany, America and England. The death of Heinrich Brugsch in 1895 was a very severe blow to demotic studies; but it must be admitted that his brilliant gifts lay in other directions than exact grammatical analysis. Apart from their philological interest, as giving the history of a remarkable language during a period of several thousand years, the grammatical studies of the last quarter of the igth century and afterwards are beginning to bear fruit in regard to the exact interpretation of historical documents on Egyptian monuments and papyri. Not long ago the supposed meaning of these was extracted chiefly by brilliant guessing, and the published translations of even the best scholars could carry no guarantee of more than approximate exacti- tude, where the sense depended at all on correct recognition of the syntax. Now the translator proceeds in Egyptian with some of the sureness with which he would deal with Latin or Greek. The mean- ing of many words may be still unknown, and many constructions are still obscure; but at least he can distinguish fairly between a correct text and a corrupt text. Egyptian writing lent itself only too easily to misunderstanding, and the writings of one period were but half intelligible to the learned scribes of another. The mistaken readings of the old inscriptions by the priests at Abydos (Table of Abydos), when attempting to record the names of the kings of the 1st Dynasty on the walls of the temple of Seti I., are now admitted on all sides; and no palaeographer, whether his field be Greek, Latin, Arabic, Persian or any other class of MSS., will be surprised to hear that the Egyptian papyri and inscriptions abound in corruptions and mistakes. The translator of to-day can, if he wishes, mark where certainty ends and mere conjecture begins, and it is to be hoped that advantage will be taken more widely of this new power. The Egyptologist who has long lived in the realm of conjecture is too prone to consider any series of guesses good enough to serve as a translation, and forgets to insert the notes of interrogation which would warn workers in other fields from implicit trust. Language and Writing. — The history of the Egyptian language is evidenced by documents extending over a very long range of time. They begin with the primitive inscriptions of the 1st Dynasty (not later than 3300 B.C.) and end with the latest Coptic compositions of about the i4th century A.D. The bulk of the hieroglyphic inscriptions are written in a more or less artificial literary language; but in business documents, letters, popular tales, &c., the scribes often adhered closely to the living form of the tongue, and thus reveal its progressive changes. The stages of the language are now distinguished as follows : — Old Egyptian. — This is properly the language of the Old Kingdom. In it we have (a) the recently discovered inscriptions of the 1st Dynasty, too brief and concise to throw much light on the language of that time; and the great collections of spells and ritual texts found inscribed in the Pyramids of the Vth and Vlth Dynasties, which must even then have been of high antiquity, though they contain later additions made in the same style, (b) A few historical texts and an abundance of short inscriptions representing the language of the IVth, Vth and Vlth Dynasties. The ordinary literary language of the later monu- ments is modelled on Old Egyptian. It is often much affected 1 Annual reports of the progress of the work are printed in the Sitzungsberichte of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; see also Erman, Zur agyptischen Sprachforschung, ib. for 1907, p. 400, showing the general trend of the results. NGUAGE) EGYPT 59 by contemporary speech, but preserves in the main the character istics of the language of the Old Kingdom. Middle attd Lite Ef\f>titin. — These represent the vulgar speech of the Middle and New Kingdoms respectively. The former is found chiefly in tales, letters, &c., written in hieratic on papyri of the Xlllth Dynasty to the end of the Middle Kingdom; also in some inscriptions of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Late Egyptian is seen in hieratic papyri of the XVIIIth to the XXIst Dynasties. The spelling of Late Egyptian is very extraordinary, full of false etymologies, otiose signs, &c., the old orthography being quite unable to adapt itself neatly to the profoundly modified language; nevertheless, this clumsy spelling is expressive, and the very mistakes are instructive as to the pronunciation. Demotic. — Demotic Egyptian seems to represent approximately the vulgar speech of the Saite period, and is written in the -notic " character, which may be traced back to the XXVIth •asty, if not to a still earlier time. With progressive changes, this form of the language is found in documents reaching down to the fall of Paganism in the 4th century A.o.1 Under the later Ptolemies and the Roman rule documents in Greek are more abundant than in demotic, and the language of the ruling classes must have begun to penetrate the masses deeply. Coptic. — This, in the main, represents the popular language of early Christian Egypt from the ,jrd to perhaps the loth century A.O., when the growth of Coptic as a literary language must have ceased. The Greek alphabet, reinforced by a few signs borrowed from demotic, rendered the spoken tongue so accurately that four distinct, though closely allied, dialects are readily distinguishable in Coptic MSS.; ample remains are found of renderings of the Scriptures into all these dialects. The distinctions between the dialects consist largely in pronunciation, but extend also to the vocabulary, word-formation and syntax. Such interchanges are found as / for r, tf~ (k, ck) for 2C (dj), final i for final e, a for e, « for o. Early in the 2nd century A.D., pagan Egyptians, or perhaps foreigners settled in Egypt, essayed, as yet unskilfully, to write the native language in Greek letters. This Old Coptic, as it is termed, was still almost entirely free from Greek loan- words, and its strong archaisms are doubtless accounted for by the literary language, even in its most " vulgar " forms, having moved more slowly than the speech of the people. Christian Coptic, though probably at first contemporary with some docu- ments of Old Coptic, contrasts strongly with the latter. The monks whose task it was to perfect the adaptation of the alphabet to the dialects of Egypt and translate the Scriptures out of the Greek, flung away all pagan traditions. It is clear that the basis which they chose for the new literature was the simplest language of daily life in the monasteries, charged as it was with expressions taken from Greek, pre-eminently the language of patristic Christianity. There is evidence that the amount of stress on syllables, and the consequent length of vowels, varied greatly in spoken Coptic, and that the variation gave much trouble to the scribes; the early Christian writers must have taken as a model for each dialect the deliberate speech of grave elders or preachers, and so secured a uniform system of accentuation. The remains of Old Coptic, though very instructive in their marked peculi- arities, are as yet too few for definite classification. The main divUoos of Christian Coptic as recognized and named at present «re: Sahidic (formerly called Theban), spoken in the upper Fbebds; Akhmimic, in the neighbourhood of Akhmim, but driven out by Sahidic about the sth century; Fayumic, in the Fayum (formerly named wrongly " Bashmuric," from a province of the Delta); Bohairic, the dialect of the "coast district" annerly named " Memphite "), spoken in the north-western Ddu. Coptic, much alloyed with Arabic, was spoken in Upper Egypt as late as the isth century, but it has long been a dead language.' Sahidic and Bohairic are the most important ' In the temple of Philae, where the worship of Isis was permitted the reign of Justinian, Brugsch found demotic ""£"?**»* with dates to the end of the sth century. J ™*°IC dialect*, which gradually displaced Coptic as i»m Mpplanted Christianity, 'adopted but few words dialects, each of these having left abundant remains; the former spread over the whole of Upper Egypt, and the latter since the 1 4th century has been the language of the sacred books of Christianity throughout the country, owing to the hierarchical importance of Alexandria and the influence of the ancient monasteries established in the north-western desert. The above stages of the Egyptian language are not defined with absolute clearness. Progress is seen from dynasty to dynasty or from century to century. New Egyptian shades off almost imperceptibly into demotic, and it may be hoped that gaps which now exist in the development will be filled by further discovery. Coptic is the only stage of the language in which the spelling gives a clear idea of the pronunciation. It is therefore the mainstay of the scholar in investigating or restoring the word- forms of the ancient language. Greek transcriptions of Egyptian names and words are valuable as evidence for the vocalization of Egyptian. Such are found from the 6th century B.C. in the inscription of Abu Simbel, from the sth in Herodotus, &c., and abound in Ptolemaic and later documents from the beginning of the 3rd century B.C. onwards. At first sight they may seem inaccurate, but on closer examination the Graecizing is seen to follow definite rules, especially in the Ptolemaic period. A few cuneiform transcriptions, reaching as far back as the XVIIIth Dynasty, give valuable hints as to how Egyptian was pronounced in the i$th century B.C. Coptic itself is of course quite inadequate to enable us to restore Old Egyptian. In it the Old Egyptian verbal forms are mostly replaced by periphrases; though the strong roots are often preserved entire, the weaker consonants and the * have largely or entirely disappeared, so that the language appears as one of biliteral rather than triliteral roots. Coptic is strongly impregnated with Greek words adopted late; moreover, a certain number of Semitic loan-words flowed into Egyptian at all ages, and especially from the :6th century B.C. onwards, displacing earlier words. It is only by the most careful scrutiny, or the exercise of the most piercing insight, that the imperfectly spelled Egyptian has been made to yield up one grammatical secret after another in the light brought to bear upon it from Coptic. Demotic grammar ought soon to be thoroughly comprehensible in its forms, and the study of Late Egyptian should not stand far behind that of demotic. On the other hand, Middle Egyptian, and still more Old Egyptian, which is separated from Middle Egyptian by a wide gap, will perhaps always be to us little more than consonantal skeletons, the flesh and blood of their vocalization being for the most part irretrievably lost.1 In common with the Semitic languages, the Berber languages of North Africa, and the Cushite languages of North-East Africa, Egyptian of all periods possesses grammatical gender, expressing masculine and feminine. Singularly few language groups have this peculiarity; and our own great Indo-European group, which possesses it, is distinguished from those above mentioned by having the neuter gender in addition. The characteristic triliteral roots of all the Semitic languages seemed to separate them widely from others; but certain traits have caused the Egyptian, Berber and Cushite groups to be classed together as three subfamilies of a Hamitic group, remotely related to the Semitic. The biliteral character of Coptic, and the biliteralism which was believed to exist in Egyptian, led philologists to suspect that Egyptian might be a surviving witness to that far-off stage of the Semitic languages when triliteral roots had not yet been formed from presumed original biliterals; Seine's investigations, however, prove that the Coptic biliterals are themselves derived from Old Egyptian triliterals, and that the triliteral roots enor- mously preponderated in Egyptian of the earliest known form; that view is, therefore, no longer tenable. Many remarkable ' In the articles referring to matters of Egyptology in this edition, Graecized forms of Old Egyptian names, where they exist, are commonly employed; in other cases names are rendered by their actual equivalents in Coptic or by analogous forms. Failing all such means, recourse is had to the usual conventional renderings of hieroglyphic spelling, a more precise transcription of the con- sonants in the latter being sometimes added. 6o EGYPT [ANCIENT LANGUAGE resemblances have been observed in the grammatical struc- ture of the Berber and Cushite groups with Semitic (cf. H. Zimmern, Vergleichende Grammatik d. semitischen Sprachen, Berlin, 1898, especially pronouns and verbs); but the relation- ship must be very distant, and there are no ancient documents that can take back the history of any one of those languages more than a few centuries. Their connexion with Semitic and Egyptian, therefore, remains at present an obscure though probable hypothesis. On the other hand, Egyptian is certainly related to Semitic. Even before the triliterality of Old Egyptian was recognized, Erman showed that the so-called pseudo- participle had been really in meaning and in form a precise analogue of the Semitic perfect, though its original employment was almost obsolete in the time of the earliest known texts. Triliteralism is considered the most essential and most peculiar feature of Semitic. But there are, besides, many other resem- blances in structure between the Semitic languages and Egyptian, so that, although the two vocabularies present few points of dear contact, there is reason to believe that Egyptian was origin- ally a characteristic member of the Semitic family of languages. See Erman, " Das Verhaltnis d. agyptischen zu d. semitischen Sprachen" (Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft, 1892); Zimmern, Vergl. Gram., 1898; Erman, " Flexion d. agyptischen Verbums " (Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad., 1900). The Egyptians proper are not, and so far as we can tell never were, Semitic in physical feature. As a possible explanation of the facts, Erman supposes that a horde of conquering Semites, like the Arabs of a later day, imposed their language on the country, but dis- appeared, being weakened by the climate or absorbed by the native population. The latter acquired the Semitic language imperfectly from their conquerors; they expressed the verbal conjugations by periphrases, mispronounced the consonants, and so changed greatly the appearance of the vocabulary, which also would certainly contain a large proportion of native non- Semitic roots. Strong consonants gave place to weak consonants (as VJ) has done to], in the modern Arabic of Egypt), and then the weak consonants disappearing altogether produced biliterals from the triliterals. Much of this must have taken place, according to the theory, in the prehistoric period; but the loss of weak consonants, of s, and of one of two repeated consonants, and the development of periphrastic conjugations continued to the end. The typical Coptic root thus became biliteral rather than triliteral, and the verb, by means of periphrases, developed tenses of remarkable precision. Such verbal resemblances as exist between Coptic and Semitic are largely due to late exchanges with Semitic neighbours. The following sketch of the Egyptian language, mainly in its earliest form, which dates from some three or four thousand years B.C., is founded upon Erman's works. It will serve to contrast with Coptic grammar on the one hand and Semitic grammar on the other. THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET = /; so conventionally transcribed since it unites two values, being sometimes y but often K (especially at the beginning of words), and from the earliest times used in a manner corresponding to the Arabic hamza, to indicate a pros- thetic vowel. Often lost. v * and (1(1 are frequently employed for y. •(*); easily lost "or changes to y. l='(y); lost in Coptic. This rare sound, well known in Semitic, occurs also in Berber and Cushite languages. w, often changes to y. <^ = r; often lost, or changes to y. r and / are distinguished in later demotic and in Coptic. ra -*i > distinction lost in Coptic. = h ; in Coptic UJ (sh) or J) (kh) correspond to it. = &; generally written with i "I (f ) in the Old Kingdom, bute»— => corresponds to kh in Coptic. f| X distinction lost at the end of the Old Kingdom. =3 =* (sh). 4 =q; Coptic K. k\ Coptic K;or(J~',2£ , according to dialect, ffi =gj Coptic K ; or (f. 0 —i; often lost at the end of words. :^=3 = / (9); often changes to /, otherwise Coptic T I or 3C, , n>, " the," fy-f, "his," P'y-s " her," &c.) of Middle Egyptian and the later language. NOUNS Two genders, m. (ending w, or nothing), f. (ending f). Three numbers: singular, dual (m. wl, f. /£, gradually became obsolete), plural (m. w, f. wt). No case-endings are recognizable, but con- struct forms — to judge by Coptic — were in use. Masculine and feminine nouns of instrument or material are formed from verbal roots by prefixing m; e.g. m-sdm-t, " stibium," from sdm, " paint the eye." Substantives and adjectives are formed from substan- nisbe ending iy, ay (e.g. Ar. beled, " city," beledi, city "). Adjectives follow the nouns they qualify. belonging to AM II NT WRITING) EGYPT 61 NUUER.4LS 7, 3, kml; 4. fdw; 5, dw'; 6. *U (or jft; 8. 6»m; 9. psj; 10. ml. 3. 6. 7, 8 and 9 (?) resemble Semitic numeral*, io and 30 (m>b) had special names; 40-90 were named as if plurals of the units 4-9. as in Semitic, \oo.ini; 1000, J.; 10,000, «*•; 100,000, t, w, 3, The forms observable in hieroglyphic writing lead to the following classification: — STIONU VERBS. Biliteral . . Of ten showing traces of an ongmal in. inf.; m early times very rare. Trilateral . . Very numerous. (Generally formed by reduplication. In Late Egyptian they were no longer inflected, and were con- jugated with the help of irv, WlAK VERBS, ll. gcminatae ill. gem. ill. inf. IV. inf. . Properly triliterals, but , with the 2nd or 3rd radical alike, these coalesced in many forms where no vowel intervened, and gave the word the appearance of a biliteral. . Rare. . Numerous, m. u>, and HI. ( were unified early. Some very common verbs, " do," " give, ' " come," " bring " are irregular. . Partly derived from adjectival formations in y, from nouns and infinitives: — e.g. S-16, inf. slpt; adj. ilpty; verb (4 lit.), slpty. Many verbs with weak consonants — ly, iv, 1 1. inf. (m[w]t), and those with • — are particularly difficult to trace accurately, owing to defective writing. It seems that all the above classes may be divided into two main group*, according to the form of the infinitive: — with masculine in- finitive the strong triliteral type, and with feminine infinitive the type of the ill. inf. The former group includes all except in. inf., IY. inf., and 'the causative of the biliterals, which belong to the second group. It is probable that the verb had a special form denoting condition, as in Arabic. There was a causative form prefixing s, and traces of forms resembling Pitl and Niphal are observed. Some roots are re- duplicated wholly or in part with a frequentative meaning, and there are traces of gemination of radicals. Pseudo-Participle. — In very early texts this is the past indicative, but more commonly it is used in sentences such as, gm-n-f wl 'k'-kwl, " he found me I stood," i.e. " he found me standing." The in- dicative use was soon given up and the pseudo-participle was employed only as predicate, especially indicating a state; e.g. ntr-t irn-0, " the goddess goes " ; Ito-i md-tl, " thou art prosperous." The endings were almost entirely lost in New Egyptian. For early times they stand thus: — Sing. 3. masc. fern. 2. masc. feci. I. c. Dual wli. ttlw PI. 10. tt. ttumy. vtyn. I, late IP. tt. tt. A kwl. The pseudo-participle seems, by its inflexion, to have been the perfect of the original Semitic conjugation. The simplest form being that of the 3rd person, it is best arranged like the correspond- ing tense in Semitic grammars, beginning with that person. There is no trace of the Semitic imperfect in Egyptian. The ordinary ~ ion is formed quite differently. The verbal stem is here by the subject-suffix or substantive — idjn-f, " he hears " ; fill, " the king hears." It is varied by the addition of particles. Ac., ft. In, hr, tu>, thus: — <*»-/. " he hears •*; idm-w-f, " he is heard " (pi. idm-U-Sn, " they •re heard"); /rfm-ftp-/, "he is heard"; i4m-n-f, "he heard ; »-ttr-f, "he was heard"; also, Sdm-ln-f, i&m-hr-f, ifan-k,-f. form has special uses, generally difficult to define, fdm-f seems rather to be imperfect, i&m-n-f perfect, and generally to express the past. Later, lam-/ is ordinarily expressed by periphrases; but by the loss of ft, ittm-n-f became itself sdm-f, which is the ordinary past in demotic. Coptic preserves idjn-f forms of many verbs in its causative (t.g. TAMJJOIJ " cause him to live," from Egyptian dl-t-nk-f), and, in its periphrastic conjugation, the same forms of •ft, ^be," and try, ''do.1' With tjm-f (ie&mo-f) was a more emphatic form (eidjomej), at any rate in the weak verbs. The above, with the relative forms mentioned below, are suoposcd by Erman to be derived from the participle, which is placed first for emphasis: thus, (jm-w An, "hearing is the king"; idjn-f, for frf«"-/y. " hearing be is." This Egyptian paraphrase of Semitic is just like the Irish paraphrase of English, " It is hearing he is." The imperative shows no ending in the singular; in the plural it has y, and later to; cf. Semitic imperative. The infinitive is of special importance on account of its being preserved very fully in Coptic. It is generally of masculine form, but feminine in ill. inf. (as in Semitic), and in causativcs of biliterals. There are relative forms of ^m-/and s^m-n-f, respectively tym-vi-j (masc.), f{lm-t-n-f (Tern.), &c. They are used when the relative is the object of the relative sentence, or has any other position than the subject. Thus sdjn-t-f may mean " she whom he hears," " she whojse praises] he hears," she [to] whom he hears (someone speaking]," ckc. There are close analogies between the function of the relative particles in Egyptian and Semitic; and the Berber languages possess a relative form of the verb. Participles. — These are active and passive, perfect and imperfect, in the old language, but all are replaced by periphrases in Coptic. Verbal Adjectives. — There is a peculiar formation, id_m-ty-fy, " he who shall hear," probably meaning originally " he is a nearer," Wm-/ v being an adjective in v formed from a feminine (0 form of the infinitive, which is occasionally found even in triliteral verbs; the endings are: sing., masc. ty-fy, (em. ty-fy; pi., masc. ty-fn, fern, ty-it. It is found only in Old Egyptian. Particles. — There seems to be no special formation for adverbs, and little use is made of adverbial expressions. Prepositions, simple and compound, are numerous. Some of the commonest simple prepositions are n " for," r " to," m " in, from," frr " upon." A few enclitic conjunctions exist, but they are indefinite in meaning — swt a vague " but," grt a vague " moreover," &c. Coptic presents a remarkable ^contrast to Egyptian in the pre- cision of its periphrastic conjugation. There are two present tenses, an imperfect, two perfects, a pluperfect, a present and a past fre- quentative, and three futures besides future perfect ; there are also conjunctive and optative forms. The negatives of some of these are expressed by special prefixes. The gradual growth of these new forms can be traced through all the stages of Egyptian. Throughout the history of the language we note an increasing tendency to periphrasis ; but there was no great advance towards precision before demotic. In demotic there are distinguishable a present tense, imperfect, perfect, frequentative, future, future perfect, conjunctive and optative; also present, past and future negatives, &c. The passive was extinct before demotic ; demotic and Coptic express it, clumsily it must be confessed, by an impersonal " they," e.g. " they bore him " stands for " he was born." It is worth noting how, in other departments besides the verb, the Egyptian language was far better adapted to practical ends- during and after the period of the Deltaic dynasties (XXII.-XXX.) than ever it was before. It was both simplified and enriched. The inflexions rapidly disappeared and little was left of the distinctions between masculine and feminine, singular, dual and plural-^except in the pronouns. The dual number had been given up entirely at an earlier date. The pronouns, both personal and demonstrative, retained their forms very fully. As prefixes, suffixes and articles, they, together with some auxiliary verbs, provided the principal mechanism of the renovated language. An abundant supply of useful adverbs was gradually accumulated, as well as conjunctions, so far as the functions of the latter were not already performed by the verbal prefixes. These great improvements in the language correspond to great changes in the economic condition of the country; they were the result of active trade and constant inter- course of all classes of Egyptians with foreigners from Europe and Asia. Probably the best stage of Egyptian speech was that which immediately preceded Coptic. Though Coptic is here and there more exactly expressive than the best demotic, it was spoilt by too much Greek, duplicating and too often expelling native expressions that were already adequate for its very simple require- ments. Above all, it is clumsily pleonastic. THE WRITING The ancient Egyptian system of writing, so far as we know, originated, developed and finally expired strictly within the limits of the Nile Valley. The germ of its existence may have come from without, but, as we know it, it is essentially Egyptian and intended for the expression of the Egyptian language. About the 1st century B.C., however, the semi-barbarous rulers of the Ethiopian kingdoms of Mcroe and Napata contrived the " Meroitic " alphabet, founded on Egyptian writing, and comprising both a hieroglyphic and a cursive form (see ETHIOPIA). As yet both of these kinds of Nubian writing are undeciphcred. Egyptian hieroglyphic was carried by conquest into Syria, certainly under the XVIIIth Dynasty, and again under the XXVIth for the engraving of Egyptian inscriptions; but in the earlier period the cuneiform syllabary, and in the later the " Phoenician alphabet, had obtained a firm hold there, and we may be sure that no attempt was made to substi- tute the Egyptian system for the latter. Cuneiform tablets in Syria, however, seem almost confined to the period of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Although it cannot be proved it seems quite possible that the traders of Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted the papyrus and Egyptian hieratic writing together, before the end of the New Kingdom, and developed their Phoenician " alphabet from the latter about 1000 B.C. In very early times a number of systems of writing already EGYPT [ANCIENT WRITING reigned in different countries forming a compact and not very large area — perhaps from South Arabia to Asia Minor, and from Persia to Crete and Egypt. Whether they all sprang from one common stock of picture-writing we shall perhaps never know, nor can we as yet trace the influence which one great system may have had on another, owing to the poverty of documents from most of the countries concerned. It is certain that in Egypt from the IVth Dynasty onwards the mode of writing was essentially the same as that which was ex- tinguished by the fall of paganism in the 4th century A.D. Its elements in the hieroglyphic form are pictorial, but each hieroglyph had one or more well-defined functions, fixed by convention in such a manner that the Egyptian language was expressed in writing word by word. Although a picture sign may at times have embarrassed the skilled native reader by offering a choice of fixed values or functions, it was never intended to convey merely an idea, so as to leave to him the task of putting the idea into his own words. How far this holds good for the period before the IVth Dynasty it is difficult to say. The known inscriptions of the earlier times are so brief and so limited in range that the system on which they were written cannot yet be fully investigated. As far back as the 1st Dynasty, phonograms (see below) were in full use. But the spelling then was very concise : it is possible that some of the slighter words, such as prepositions, were omitted in the writing, and were intended to be supplied from the context. As a whole, we gain the impression that a really distinct and more primitive stage of hieroglyphic writing by a substantially vaguer notation of words lay not far behind the time of the 1st Dynasty. The employment of the signs are of three kinds: any given sign represents either (i) a whole word or root ; or (2) a sound as part of a word ; or (3) pictorially defines the meaning of a word the sound of which has already been given, by a sign or group of signs preceding. The number of phonograms is very restricted, but some signs have all these powers. For instance, i"""""! is the conventional picture of a draughtboard (shown in plan) with the draughtsmen (shown in elevation) on its edge: — this sign (i) signifies the root mn, " set," "firm"; or (2) in the group ^ , represents the same sound as part of the root mn]}, " good "; or (3) added to the group snt (thus: AVWW fiaitt^^ shows that the meaning intended is " draught- o board," or " draughts," and not any of the other meanings of snt. Thus signs, according to their employment, are said to be (i) " word- signs," (2) " phonograms," or (3) " determinatives." Word-signs. — The word-sign value of a sign is, in the first place, the name of the object it represents, or of some material, or quality, W or action, or idea suggested by it. Thus ^ is hr, " face " ; u , a vase of ointment, is mrfy.t, " ointment "; ' ? is wdb, " turn." Much investigation is still required to establish the origins of the values of the signs; in some cases the connexion between the pictures and the primary values seems to be curiously remote. Probably all the signs in the hieroglyphic signary can be employed in their primary sense. The secondary value expresses the consonantal root of the name or other primary value, and any, or almost any, derivative from that root: as when • — CL~. a mat with a cake upon it, is not only (ftp, an " offering-mat," but also l}tp in the sense of " concilia- tion," " peace," " rest," " setting " (of the sun), with many de- rivatives. In the third place, some signs may be transferred to express another root having the same consonants as the first : thus £) , the ear, by a play upon words can express not only Sdm, " hear," but also sdm, " paint the eyes." Phonograms.-— Only a limited number of signs are found with this use, but they are of the greatest importance. By searching through- out the whole mass of normal inscriptions, earlier than the periods of Greek and Roman rule when great liberties were taken with the writing, probably no more than one hundred different phonograms can be found. The number of those commonly employed in good writing is between seventy and eighty. The most important phono- grams are the uniliteral or alphabetic signs, twenty-four in number in the Old Kingdom and without any homophones: later these were increased by homophones to thirty. Of biliteral phonograms — each expressing a combination of two consonants — there were about fifty commonly used: some fifteen or twenty were rarely used. As Egyptian roots seldom exceeded three letters, there was no need for trtlileral phonograms to spell them. There is, however, one triliteral phonogram, the eagle, ^\ , tyw, or tiu (?), used for the plural ending _ELNS of adjectives in y formed from words ending in t (whether radical or the feminine ending). The phonetic values of the signs are derived from their word-sign values and consist usually of the bare root, though there are rare examples of the retention of a flexional ending; they often ignore also the weaker consonants of the root, and on the same principle reduce a repeated consonant to a single one, as when the hoe f\ , {inn, has the phonetic value (tn. The history of some of the alphabetic signs is still very obscure, but a sufficient number of them have been explained to make it nearly certain that the values of all were obtained on the same principles.1 Some of the ancient words from which the phonetic values were derived probably fell very early into disuse, and may never be discoverable in the texts that have come down to us. The following are among those most easily explained : — (I, reed flower, value y and « ; from U *K\ vfy , y, " reed." • _]c£& ^l (It seems as if the two values y and K were obtained by choosing first one and then the other of the two semi-consonants composing the name. They are much confused, and a conventional symbol I has to be adopted for rendering n.) - -fl, forearm, value '(y); from . ,'(y), "hand." ', r, " mouth." \, b.t, " belly." », mouth, value r; from , belly and teats, value ft; from (The feminine ending' is here, as usual, neglected.) 1. tank, , slope of earth or brickwork, value i ; from value q ; „ I ,$, " tank." 9", " slope," ' " height." (The doubled weak consonant is here neglected.) ^f^^f^m , hand, value d; from cobra, value z; from i, d.t, " hand." z.t, " cobra." For some alphabetic signs more than one likely origin might be found, while for others, again, no clear evidence of origin is yet forthcoming. It has already been explained that the writing expresses only cpnsonants. In the Graeco-Roman period various imperfect- attempts were made to render the vowels in foreign names and words by the semi - vowels as also by n. the consonant V which _ n originally represented having been reduced in speech by that time to the power of K, only. Thus, IlToXtMoios is spelt Ptwrmys, Antoninus, 'Nt'nynws or Intnyns, &c. &c. Much earlier, throughout the New Kingdom, a special " syllabic " orthography, in which the alphabetic signs for the consonants are generally replaced by groups or single signs having the value of a consonant followed by a semi-vowel, was used for foreign names and words, e.g. ' chariot," was written _$^ VIJD, " tower," was written ma, " harp," was written non, " Hamath," was written According to W. Max Muller (Asien und Europa, 1893, chap, v.), this represents an endeavour to express the vocalization; but, if so, it was carried out with very little system. In practice, the semi- vowels are generally negligible. This method of writing can be traced back into the Middle Kingdom, if not beyond, and it greatly affected the spelling of native words in New Egyptian and demotic. Determinatives. — Most signs can on occasion be used as deter- minatives, but those that are very commonly employed as phono- grams or as secondary word-signs are seldom employed as deter- minatives; and when they are so used they are often somewhat differentiated. Certain generic determinatives are very common, e.g. :— .; of motion. ; of acts involving force. ; of divinity. 1 It seems that " acrophony " (giving to a sign the value of the first letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the latest age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their " vain repetitions" on the temple walls. PALAEOGRAPHY] EGYPT i ; of * person or a man's name. (__J ; of building*. O ; of inhabited place*, fvxo: of foreign countries. ; club ; of foreigner*. t; of all actions of the mouth — eating and speaking, likewise silence and hunger. '.; ripple-lines; of liquid. r W ; hide; of animals, also leather, &c. ^J ; of plants and fibres. 9 : of flesh. t_y_»; a sealed papyrus-roll; of books, teaching, law, and of abstract ideas generally. In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted to the sfl, rjfi &c-i >fter proper names, but it developed im- mensely later, so that few words beyond the particles were written without them in the normal style after the Old Kingdom. Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms which point out the special meaning. In such cases the ideogram is not merely a determinative nor yet quite a word - sign. Thus } k -- o ^ k y Semite." <| 3. " Libyan," &c., but | cannot stand by itself for the name of any particular foreign people. So also in monogram conduct. is im " go, Orthography. — The most primitive form of spelling in the hiero- glyphic system would be by one sign for each word, and the monu- ments of the 1st Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode. Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches, for here the monumental style demanded special conciseness. Thus, for instance, the name of Tethmosis III.— MN-HPR-R— is spelled (as R' is the name of the sun-god, with customary deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last). A number of common words — prepositions, &c. — with only one txMWMvapf are spelled by single alphabetic signs in ordinary writing. Word-signs used singly for the names of objects arc generally marked with I in classical writing, as — ", 16, " heart," *. kr. " face." te. But the use of bare word-signs is not common. Flexional con- sonants are almost always marked by phonograms, except in very early times; as when the feminine word ^^ =z./, "cobra," is spelled "1. Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phono- « l\ i would be added to indicate which of its values was intended : 1 in 1 V " **• "be." but in f it is fin, "king." Further, j to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent confusion of one with another in rapid writing they were generally provided with " phonetic complements," a group being less easily misread than a single letter. E.g. 9, in, " command," is regularly written V ^S. •*(*); but T, ht, " white," is written I "V hz(z). This practice had the advantage also of distinguishing determinatives from phonograms. Thus the root or syllable hn is regularly written {Nito avoid confusion with the determinative tfr. Redundance «*~w >*4 in writing is the rule; for instance, b is often spelled (b)b<(>). Riliter.il phonograms are very rare as phonetic complements, nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in writing the . radicals of a word. . Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters n, the deter is not uncommon, determinative being generally added. Thus in the pyramidal texts we find jff>r, " become," written 3C in one copy of a text, in another J?_~. Such variant spellings are very important for fixing the readings of word-signs. It is noteworthy that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters, especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever made towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral phonograms, which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well nave been rendered quite superfluous. Abbreviations. — We find •¥• 1 II, strictly >nj z> i standing for the ceremonial vival -nj tor, inb. " Life, Prosperity and Health," and in course of time was used in accounts instead of dna, " total." Monograms are frequent and are found from the earliest times. Thus 'Jj ', f* mentioned above are monograms, the association of monogram is and J\ having no pictorial meaning. Another common •Q and for H-t-Hrw " Hathor." A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic complement, as^TN hz " white," or with its determinative, as rCrf~l hz "silver." The table on the opposite page shows the uses of a few of the commoner signs. The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in Egypt. The aim of the artist-scribe was to arrange his variously shaped characters into square groups, and this could be done in great measure by taking advantage of the different ways in which many words could be spelt. Thus hs could be written J ^ , hsy w (I|L k.t-f 0 , hs-n-f 0 . But some words in the classical writing I 1r»— I lew. were intractable from this point of view. It is obvious that the alpha- betic signs played a very important part in the formation of the groups, and many words could only be written in alphabetic signs. A great advance was therefore made when several homophones were introduced into the alphabet in the Middle and New Kingdoms, partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic distinctions, giving the choice between — *— and II, and and •' - , «w» andi/, ^y\ and<^. In later times the number of homophones in use increased greatly throughout the different classes, the tendency being much helped by the habit of fanciful writing; but few of these homophones found their way into the cursive script. Occasionally a scribe of the old times indulged his fancy in " sportive " or mysterious " writing, either inventing new signs or employing old ones in unusual meanings. Short sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of the Xllth Dynasty; some groups are so written cursively in early medical papyri, and certain religious inscriptions in the royal tombs of the XlXth and XXth Dynasties are in secret writing. Fanciful writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods. PALAEOGRAPHY Hieroglyphic. — The main division is into monumental or epigraphic hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs. The former may be rendered by the sculptor or the painter in stone, on wood, &c., with great delicacy of detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline. When finely rendered they are of great value to the student in- vestigating the origins of their values. No other system of writing bears upon its face so clearly the history of its development as the Egyptian; yet even in this a vast amount of work is still required to detect and disentangle the details. Monumental hieroglyphic did not cease till the 3rd century A.D. (Temple of Esna). The written hieroglyphs, formed by the scribe with the reed pen on papyrus, leather, wooden tablets, &c., have their outlines more or less abbrevi- ated, producing eventually the cursive scripts hieratic and demotic. The written hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially for religious texts. Hieratic. — A kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is found even in the 1st Dynasty. In the Middle Kingdom it is well EGYPT [HIEROGLYPHICS, ETC. Sign. Description Name. Word-sign Value. Phonetic Value. Determinative Value. £ child hrd (khrod) youth ^ face hr (hor) hr [hr] -so- eye ir.t (yori.t) ir ir see, &c. «SZ2> mouth r (ro) r r — a i-ji forearm arm with stick •(•ei) njjt " be strong ' nfct [action of hant or arm] violent action ^ man with stick njjt " be strong " nfet violent action I lungs and windpipe sm; sm; ^ heart ib heart j heart and windpipe ? nfr J sparrow widgeon s',.t sr s; s! evil, worthless- ness, smallness <3j bold-fish in.t in in ^= tusk cut branch (i) ibb " tooth " (2) hw " taste " bt . bh hw bh Ibt] bite, &c. wood, tree © 0 CTI3 threshing- floor sun chamber, house sp.t (i) r- " sun " (2) hrw " day " pr sp (i) sun (2) division of time T flat land ibation vase hs.t t. hs t. hs (boundless hori- zon, eternity i cord on stick wz wz wz ^7 Basket nb.t nb ^* ooped basket ? k k ^ sickle ? m- m- T composite hoe ire-drill [mr ?] mr z- mr Z' tillage n attendant's sms " follow " sms R equipment ^ mife ds ds cut, prick, cut- ting instrument Rosetta stone itself. One of the most char- acteristic distinctions of later demotic is the minuteness of the writing. Hieroglyphic is normally written from right to left, the signs facing to the commencement of the line; hieratic and demotic follow the same direction. But monumental hieroglyphic may also be written from left to right, and is constantly so arranged for purposes of sym- metry, e.g. the inscriptions on the two jambs of a door are frequently turned in opposite directions; the same is frequently done with the short inscriptions scattered over a scene amongst the figures, in order to distinguish one label from another. In modern founts of type, the hieroglyphic signs are made to run from left to right, in order to facilitate the setting where European text is mixed with the Egyptian. The table on next page shows them in their more cor- rect position, in order to display more clearly their relation to the hieratic and demotic equivalents. Clement of Alexandria states that in the Egyptian schools the pupils were first taught the " epistolographic style of writing (i.e. demotic), secondly the " hieratic " employed by the sacred scribes, and finally the " hiero- glyphic " (Strom, v. 657). It is doubtful whether they classified the signs of the huge hieroglyphic syllabary with any strictness. The only native work on the writing that has come to light as yet is a fragmentary papyrus of Roman date which has a table in parallel columns of hieroglyphic signs, with their hieratic equivalents and words written in hieratic de- scribing them or giving their values or mean- ings. The list appears to have comprised about 460 signs, including most of those that occur commonly in hieratic. They are to some extent classified. The bee \lG. heads the list as a royal sign, and is followed by figures of nobles and other human figures in various atti- tudes, more or less grouped among themselves, animals, reptiles and fishes, scorpion, animals again, twenty-four alphabetic characters, parts of the human body carefully arranged from @ to _A, thirty-two in number, parts of animals, celestial signs, terrestrial signs, vases. The arrangement down to this point is far from strict, and beyond it is almost impossible to describe concisely, though there is still a rough grouping of characters according to resem- blance of form, nature or meaning. It is a curious fact that not a single bird is visible on the fragments, and the trees and plants, which might easily have been collected in a compact and well-defined section, are widely scattered. Why the alphabetic characters are introduced where they are is a puzzle; the order of these is:- characterized, and in its most cursive form seems hardly to retain any definable trace of the original hieroglyphic pictures. The style varies much at different periods. Demotic. — Widely varying degrees of cursiveness are at all periods •observable in hieratic; but, about the XXVIth Dynasty, which inaugurated a great commercial era, there was something like a definite parting between the uncial hieratic and the most cursive form afterwards known as demotic. The employment of hieratic was thenceforth almost confined to the copying of religious and other traditional texts on papyrus, while demotic was used not only for all business but also for writing literary and even religious texts in the popular language. By the time of the XXVth Dynasty the cursive of the conservative Thebais had become very obscure. A better form from Lower Egypt drove this out completely in the time of Amasis II. and is the true demotic. Before the Macedonian con- quest thecursiveligaturesof theolddemotic gave birth to new symbols which were carefully and distinctly formed, and a little later an epigraphic variety was engraved on stone, as in the case of the Three others, had already occurred amongst the fish and reptiles. There seems to be no logical aim in this arrangement of the alphabetic characters and the series is incomplete. Very probably the Egyptians never constructed a really systematic list of hieroglyphs. In modern lists the signs are classified according to the nature of the objects they depict, as human figures, plants, vessels, instruments, &c. Hprapollon's Hieroelyphica may be cited as a native work, but its author, if really an Egyptian, had no knowledge of good writing. His pro- duction consists of two elaborate complementary lists: the one describing sign-pictures and giving their meanings, the other cata- loguing ideas in order to show how they could be expressed in hieroglyphic. Each seems to us to be made up of curious but per- verted reminiscences eked out by invention ; but they might some day prove to represent more truly the usages of mystics and magicians in designing amulets, &c., at a time approaching the middle ages. f *. • •!•:!» n MAI.K. I ONE SLAG. & IVORY HAWK. f. LIMESTONE LION. 12 -HI1» ON A VASE. EGYPT EARLIEST EGYPTIAN ART PLATE I. a. HEADS ON IVORY TUSKS. 3. 8. IVORY DOG AND GAZELLE. 9. IVORY HANDLE OF KNIFE. ANIMALS ON BONE COMBS. 5. 10.) WHITE ON RED VASES; ii.J MEN AND ANIMALS. 13. SHIP ON A WALL PAINTING. 14. IVORY KING. 15. ARCHAIC KING'S HEAD, STUDY IN LIMESTONE. 16. DC.** 17. HEAD OF KHASEKHEM. PLATE II. EGYPT EARLY EGYPTIAN ART Photo, Llansell. 19. ANIMALS ON SLATE PALETTE 18. LIMESTONE RELIEF 20. CONQUEROR AS A BUL 21. GAZELLES AND PALM, SLATE. 22. ANIMALS, SLATE. 23. KING NARMER, SLATE PALETTE. 24. IVORY TUSK, WITH ANIMALS. 25. IVORY WAND, WITH ANIMALS. 1< f .f * * 26. WOODEN PANELS OF HESI. 27. RAHOTP AND NEFERT. 28. WOODEN FIGURE. I ART] EGYPT Demoiu-. Hieratic. Hieroglyphic. tml, "who" . . . J) 1T2 ' •Ky AM* ("Pharaoh") . falt-fj UiWe+J 1MKS) P«f«0 *N^ 10S, f »ft | f^ ytt. " father " . . J / , §L-=*P U/ .*«**, "live" . . Gl ^r 7* -1 dU. " know " . . & *3 c^^ '* •kt. " stand " . . **- try ^1 «*' etnt. " carry " *- ^ p U •u (phon.) . . . ^ 4 ft) KM j (alph.) . . . ^ h.) . . . H T ft 1 / U mulph.) . . . J> j $. m «(alph.) . . . -.* -* ^vs n The early scribe's outfit, often carried slung over his shoulder, • Men in the hieroglyph hi. It consisted of frayed reed pens or brushes, a small pot of water, and a palette with two circular cavi- » in which black and red ink were placed, made of finely powdered olour solidified with gum. In business and literary documents * was used for contrast, especially in headings; in demotic, however, it is very rarely seen. The pen became finer in course of e, enabling the scribe to write very small. The split reed of the Greek penman was occasionally adopted by the late demotic scribes. Egypt had long been bilingual when, in papyri of the 2nd century ..we begin to find transcripts of the Egyptian language into etters, the latter reinforced by a few signs borrowed from iemoUc alphabet: so written we have a magical text and a •cope, probably made by foreigners or for their use. The superiority of the Greek alphabet with its full notation of Is was readily seen, but piety and custom as yet barred the way U adoption. The triumph of Christianity banished the old wn once and for all ; even at the beginning of the 4th century native Egyptian script scarcely survived north of the Nubian .nticr at Philae; a little later it finally expired. The following egnt ngns, however, had been taken over from demotic by the Copts : -I, from i:, dem. 6 -*, probably from J> (Boh.) - *, from 2 (AkhmO-J.from *;), dem. O. . dem. <1 -/, from 6 • *. from \\ A /. dem. U. , J/, dem. T (or® J), dem. ,_ X - -U, from dyt, dem. For origins of hieroglyphs, see Petrie's Mtdum Griffith. A Collection of Hierotfyphs (1898); DLJ (1892); F. LI. N. de G. Davies, The Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep, pt. i. (1900); M. A. Murray, Sagqara Mastabas (London, 1905); also Petite and Griffith, Two Hieroglyphic Papyri from Tanii (London, 1889) (native sign-list); G. Moller, Hiera- tische Paldotraphie (Leipzig, 1909); Griffith, Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the J. Rylands Collection (Man- chester, 1909). (F.LL.G.) E. An and Archaeology. — In the following sections a general history of the characteristics of Ancient Egyptian art is first given, showing the variation of periods and essentials of style; and this is followed by an account of the use made of material products, of the tools and instru- ments employed, and of the monuments. For further details see also the separate topographical headings (for excavations, &c.), and the general articles on the various arts and art- materials (for references to Egypt); also PYRAMIDS; MUMMY, &c. General Characteristics. The wide and complex subject of Egyptian art will be treated here in six periods: Prehistoric, Early Kings, Pyramid Kings, Xllth Dynasty, XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, XXVIth Dynasty and later. In each age will be considered the (A) statuary, (B) reliefs, (C) painting. Prehistoric. — The earliest civilized population of Egypt was highly skilled in mechanical accuracy and regularity, but had little sense of organic forms. They kept the unfinished treatment of the limbs and extremities which is so characteristic of most barbaric art ; and the action was more considered than the form. (A) In the round there are in the earlier graves female figures of two races, the Bushman type and European, both probably representing servants or slaves. These have the legs always united, sloping to a point without feet (Plate I. fig. i); the arms are only stumps. The face has a beaky nose and some indication of eyes. Upon the surface is colouring; red for the Bushman, with black whisker though female; white for the European type, with black tattoo patterns. Other female figures are modelled in a paste, upon a stick, and the black hair is sometimes made separately to fit on as a wig over the red head, showing that wigs were then used, Male figures are generally only heads in the earlier times. Tusks with carved heads (Plate I. figs. 2, 3) are the earliest, beginning at S.D. (sequence date) 33;' heads on the top of combs are found, from S.D. 42 to the close of such combs in the fifties. All of these heads show a high forehead and a pointed beard ; and such expression as may be discovered is grave but not savage. In later times whole figures of ivory, stone and clay are found, with the legs united, and the arms usually joined to the body. A favourite way of indicating the eyes was by drilling two holes and inserting a white shell bead in each. The figures of animals (Plate I. figs. 4, 5) are quite as rude as the human figures: they only summarily indicate the 1 In the prehistoric age when absolute dating is out of reach a " sequence dating " by means of the sequence of types in pottery, tools, &c., has been proposed in Petrie's Diospolis Parva, pp. 4 et sqq. The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at b.D. 30, and shortly before S.D. 80 the period of the first historic dynasty is entered. 66 EGYPT [ANCIENT ART mature, and often hardly express the genus. They are most usual on combs and pins; but sacred animals are also found. The lion is the most usual (Plate I. fig. 7), but the legs are roughly marked, if at all: the leonine air is given, but the attitude is more distinct than the form. The hawk (Plate I. fig. 6) is modelled in block without any legs. The slate palettes in the form of animals are even more summary, and continually degraded until they lost all trace of their origin. There are also curious figures of animals chipped in flint, which show some character, but no detail. (B) Reliefs with animal figures belong to the later part of the prehistoric age. The relief is low, and the form hatched across with lines (Plate I. fig. 8), a style copied from drawing. There is more animation than in the round figures. At the close of this age the fashion of long processions of animals appears (Plate I. fig. 9) ; some character is shown in these, but no sense of action. (C) Drawing is found from the earliest civilization, done in white slip on red vases. Figures of men are very rare (Plate I. fig. 10); they have the body triangular, the waist being very narrow; the legs are two lines linked by a zigzag, as if to express that they move to and fro. The usual figures are goats and hippopotami; always having the body covered with cross lines to express the connexion of the outlines (Plate I. fig. n). This technique is in every way closely akin to that of the modern Kabyle. An entirely different mode is common at a later time when designs were painted in thin red colour on a light brown ware. The subjects of the earlier of these examples are imitations of cordage, of marbling, and of basket-work; later there are rows of men and animals, and ships (Plate I. figs. 12, 13), with various minor signs. The figures are never cross-hatched as in earlier drawing, but always filled in altogether. The fact that the ships have oars and not sails makes it probable that they were rather for the sea than for Nile traffic, and a starfish among the motives on such pottery also points to the sea con- nexion. The ulterior meaning of the decoration is probably religious and funereal, but the objects which are figured must have been familiar. For this whole period see Jean Capart, Debuts de I'art en £gypte (1904; trans. Primitive Art in Ancient Egypt). The Early Kings, — The dynastic race wrought an entire transformation in the art of Egypt; in place of the clumsy and undetailed representations, there suddenly appears highly artistic work, full of character, action and anatomical detail. (A) The earliest statues of this age are the colossi of the god Min from Coptos; that they belong to the artistic race is evident from the spirited reliefs upon them (see below, B), but the figures were very rude, the legs and arms being joined all in the mass. The main example of this early art is a limestone head of a king (Plate I. figs. 15, 16), which is a direct study from life, to serve as a model. For the accuracy of the facial curves, and the grasp of character and type, it is equal to any later work; and in its entire absence of conventions and its pure naturalism there is no later sculpture so good: as Prof. A. Michaelis says, " it renders the race type with astounding keenness, and shows an excellent power of observation in* the exact representation of the eyes." By the portrait, it is probably of King Narmer or some king related to him, that is, about the beginning of the 1st Dynasty. The ivory statuette of an aged king (Plate I. fig. 14) is. probably slightly later. It shows the same subtle sense of character, and is unsurpassed in its reality. Many ivory figures of men, women and animals are known from Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) and Abydos; and they all show the same school of work, simple, dignified, observant, and with an air which places them on a higher plane of truthfulness and precision than later art. There is none of the mannerism of a long tradition, but a nobility pervades them which has no self-consciousness. The lower class of work of this age is shown by great numbers of glazed pottery figures both human and animal. Later in the Ilnd Dynasty, the head of Khasekhem (Plate I. fig. 17) shows the beginning of convention, but yet has a delicacy about the mouth which surpasses later works. (B) Reliefs abound at this age, and include the most important evidences of the development of the art. The earliest examples are those of animals (Plate II. fig. 18) and shells on the colossi of Coptos. They show a keen sense of form, and the stag's head, which is probably the earliest, already bears an artistic feeling wholly different to that of any of the prehistoric works (P.K. iii. iv.). The carvings on slate palettes appear to begin with work crudely accurate and forceful, the heavy limbs being ridged with tendons and muscles (Plate II. fig. 19), but there is more pro- portion, with the same massive strength (Plate II. fig. 20). Soon after, with a leap, the artist produced the first pure work of art that is known (Plate II. fig. 21), a design for its own sake without the tie of symbolism or history. The group of two long- necked gazelles facing a palm tree is of extraordinary refinement, and shows the artistic consciousness in every part; the sym- metric rendering of the palm tree, reduced to fit the scale of the animals, the dainty grace of the smooth gazelles contrasted with the rugged stem, the delicacy of the long flowing curves and the fine indications of the joints, all show a sense of design which has rarely been equalled in the ceaseless repetitions of the tree and supporters motive during every age since. Passing the various palettes with hunting scenes and animals (Plate II. fig. 22), we come to the great historical carving of King Narmer (Plate II. fig. 23). Here the anatomy has reached its limits for such work; the precision of the muscles on the inner and outer sides of the leg, of the uniform grip in the left arm, and the tense muscle upholding the right arm, prove that the artist knew that part of his work perfectly. The large ceremonial mace-heads recording the Sed festivals of the king Narmer and another, belong also to this school; but owing to their smaller size they have not such artistic detail. With them were found many reliefs in ivory, on tusks, wands and cylinders. The main motive in these is a long procession of animals (Plate II. figs. 24, 25) often grotesquely crowded; but there is much observation shown and the figures are expressive. No drawing of this age has survived. The Pyramid Kings. — A different ideal appears in the pyramid times; in place of the naturalism of the earlier work there is more regularity, some convention, and the sense of a school in the style. The prevailing feeling is a noble spaciousness both in scale and in form, an equanimity based upon knowledge and character, a grandeur of conception expressed by severely simple execution. There is nothing superfluous, nothing common, nothing trivial. The smallest as well as the largest work seems complete, inevitable, immutable, without limitations of time, or labour or thought. (A) The statuette of Khufu or Cheops (Plate III. fig. 29) though only a minute figure in ivory, shows the character of immense energy and will; the face is an astonishing portrait to be expressed in a quarter of an inch. The life-size statue of Khafre or Chephren (Plate III. fig. 30) is a majestic work, serene and powerful; carved in hard diorite, yet unhesitating in execution. The muscular detail is full, but yet kept in harmony with the massive style of the figure. The private persons have entirely different treatment according to the character of their position. In place of the awful dignity of the kings there is the placid high-bred Princess Nofri (Plate II. fig. 27, Plate III. fig. 31), the calm conscientious dignitary Hemset (Plate III. fig. 32), the bustling, active, middle-class official, Ka-aper (Plate II. fig. 28, Plate III. fig. 33), and the kneeling figure of a servitor. The differences of character are very skilfully rendered in all the sculpture of this age. The whole figures are stiff in the earlier time, as the figure of Nes; then square and massive, but true in form, as Rahotp and Nofri (Plate II. fig. 27); and afterwards easier and less monumental, as Ka-aper (Plate II. fig. 28). The skill in beaten copper work is shown by the portrait of the Prince Mer-en-ra (Plate III. fig. 35). (B) The reliefs are quite equal to the statuary. The wooden panels of Hesi (Plate II. fig. 26) show the archaic style of great detail, with a bold, stark vigour of attitude. Later work is abundant in the tomb-sculptures of this age, with a fulness of variety and detail which makes them the most interesting of all EGYPT PYRAMID PERIOD. PLATE III. zo. IVORY UK I'll HOPS. 31 LIMESTONE OK NEFERT. w. DIOKIIE OK CHKPHKKN, 33. HKMSKT: LIMESTONE. 33- WOOD (see Fig. 28). 34. SCRIBE: LIMESTONE. 35. MER-EN-RA: COPPER. \ rr r r I * 7 r- jnilfdlllll f \ 36. LIMESTONE SLAB OK KHENT-ER-KA. Pholo, Bonfils. 37. THE OXHERDS: LIMESTONE. 40. SENWOSRI I.: LIMESTONE RELIEFS: HOTEPA. 41. PLATE IV. EGYPT 1400 B. C. TO ROMAN. Photo, Mansell. 42. AMENOPHIS III. : GRANITE. 43. QUEEN TAIA : LIMESTONE. 45. NEGRESS : EBONY. 46. QUEEN HATSHEPSUT. 47. KHA-EM-HAT. Photo, Anderson, 44. RAMESES II. : GRANITE. 48. SETI I. 49. PRINCESSES: FRESCO. 50. FOUR RACES OF MAN. 52. SCENE IN XXVI. DYNASTY. 53- PTOLEMAIC RELIEF. 54. MODELLED HEAD AND SKULL. ANCIENT ART) EGYPT 67 branches of the art. The general effect cannot IK- judged without a large scene, but the figures of two men and an ox (Plate III. fig. 37) show the freshness and vigour of the style, which is even higher than this in some examples. The clear, noble spacing of the surface work is well shown by a group of offerings and inscribed titles (Plate III. fig. 36). (C) Flat drawings of this age are rare. Some fine examples, such as the geese from Medum, show that such work kept pace with the reliefs; but most of the fresco-work has perished, and there are few instances of line drawing. The Xllth Dynasty. — This age overlaps the previous in its style. The end of the last age was in the very degraded tomb work of the early Xlth Dynasty. (A) The new style begins with the royal statues, which it seems we must attribute to the foreign kings from whom the Xllth Dynasty was descended. These statues were later appropriated by the Hyksos, and so came to be called by their name, which is a mis- nomer. The type of face ( Plate III. fig. 38) is thick-featured , full of force, with powerful masses of facial muscle covering the skull. The style is very vigorous and impassioned, without any trace of relenting towards conventional work. The surfaces are not in the least subdued by a general breadth of style, as in the last period ; but, on the contrary, revel in the full detail of variety. There is perhaps no age where nature is so lit tie controlled by convention in either the living character or its sculptured expression. One of these kings might well be the founder of the IXth Dynasty, " Achthoes (Kheti), who did much injury to all the inhabitants," " Khuther Taurus the tyrant "; the expression is that of a Chlodwig or an Alboin. From this type evidently descended the milder and more civilized kings of the Xllth Dynasty, the resemblance being so strong that the fierce figures have even been identified with that dynasty by some. A good example is that of the statue of Amenemhat (Amenemhg) III. (Plate III. fig. 39). The style of the Xllth Dynasty may be summed up as clean, highly-finished work, strong in facial detail; but with neither the grandeur of the IVth nor the vivacity of the XVIIIth Dynasty. This passed in the Xlllth Dynasty into a graceful but weak manner, as in the statues of Sebkhotp (Sebek-hotep) III. and Neferhotp. (B) The relief work shows most clearly the rise of the new style. In the middle of the Xlth Dynasty an entirely fresh treatment appears; the Old Kingdom work had died out in very bad sunk-reliefs, the fresh style (Plate III. fig. 41) was a low relief with sharp edges above the field. It was full of delicate variety in the surfaces, and of elaborated close-packed lines of hair and ornaments. By the time of the early Xllth Dynasty, this reached a perfection of refinement in the detail of facial curves, with an ostentatiously low relief (P.K. ix. i.), rather on the lines of modern French work; but the whole with dean, firm outlines, severely restrained in the expression, and without any trace of emotion. It is the work of a school, in which high training took the place of the reliance on nature. Sunk relief was also well used , as by Senusert (Senwosri) I. (Plate III. fig. 40). There was a steady decline during the Xllth Dynasty and onward, but the same tone was followed. (C) In some tombs painting only was used, and it followed the general character of the relief treatment, being more rigid, de- tailed, and scholastic than the older style. The XVIIIth-XXtk Dynasties.— The obvious, not to say superficial, character of this age has rendered it one of the most popular in Egyptian art. The older breadth, fulness, and vigour have vanished, those great qualities which stamp the immortal works of early times. The difference is much like that between the Parthenon and the Niobids, or between Jacopo Avanzi and Caracci. In this change is the whole difference between the art of character and the an of emotion; and though the emotional side is the more popular, as needing less thought to understand it, yet the unfailing canon is that in every age and land the true quality of art is proportionate to the expression of character as apart from transient emotion. This may perhaps apply to other arts as well as to sculpture and painting. If we accept frankly the emotional nature of this age, we may admire its graceful outlines, its vivacious manner, its romantic style, with an occasional sauciness which is amusing and attractive. It revelled in rich detail, and close masses of lines, as in wigs and ribbed dresses. It sported with a seductive Syrian type of face, especially under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III.; but we find the anatomy giving way to mere smoothness of surface, for the sake of contrast with the masses of detail. The romantic element increased, solemn funereal statues show husband and wife hand in hand; and it culminated under Akhenaton, who is seen kissing his wife in the chariot, or dancing her on his knee. An overwhelming naturalism swamped the older reserves of Egyptian art, and the expression of the postures, actions and familiarities of daily life, or the instan- taneous attitudes of animals, became the dernier cri of fashion. It was all charming and wonderful, but it was the end, — nothing could come after it. The XlXth Dynasty, at its best under Seti I., could only excel in high finish of smoothness and graceful curves; life, character, meaning, had vanished. And soon after, under Rameses II., mere mechanical copying, hard lifeless routine of stone-cutting, regardless of truth and of nature, dominated the whole. (A) In sculpture there is a certain baldness of style at first, as in the Amenophis I. at Turin or Mutnefert at Cairo. More fulness and richness of character succeeded, as in Tahutmes (Tethmosis) III. and Amenophis III. (Plate IV. fig. 42, British Museum). And the feeling of the age finds greater scope in private statues, many of which have a personal fascination about them, as in the seated figures at Cairo and Florence, and the freer work in wood, of which the ebony negress (Plate IV. fig. 45) is the best example. The burst of naturalism under Akhenaton resulted in some marvellous portraiture, of which the fragment of a queen's head (Plate IV. fig. 43) is perhaps the most brilliant instance; the fidelity in the delicate curves of the nose and around the mouth is enhanced by the touch of artistic convention in the facing of the lips. The only work of ability in the XlXth Dynasty is the black granite figure (Plate IV. fig. 44) of Rameses II. at Turin. The ordinary statuary of his reign is painfully stiff and poor, and there is no later work in the period worth notice. (B) The reliefs of the early XVIIIth Dynasty are closely like the scenes of the tombs in the pyramid age, but soon carving was superseded by the cheaper painting, and but few tombs in relief are known. The temples were the principal places for reliefs; and they steadily deteriorate from the first great example, Deir el Bahri (see ARCHITECTURE: Egyptian), down to the late Ramessides. The portraiture is strong and clear-cut (Plate IV. fig. 46), but somewhat mechanical and without muscular detail: the sameness is rather more than is probable. There is a good deal of repetition for mere effect, even in the fine work of Kha- em-hat (Plate IV. fig. 47), under Amenophis III. That the artists were conscious of their poverty of thought is shown by some precise imitations of the style of early monuments. On reaching the age of Akhenaton, the peculiar style of that school is obvious in every relief; the older conventions were deserted, and, for good or for bad, a new start from nature was attempted. After that the smooth finish of the Seti reliefs at Abydos (Plate IV. fig. 48) shows no life or observation; and only occasionally the artist triumphed over the stone-worker, as in the portrait of Bantanta at Memphis, which is precisely like another head of her found in Sinai. The innumerable reliefs of the XlXth- XXth Dynasty temples are only of historic interest, and are all despicable in comparison with earlier works. (C) Painting was the art most congenial to this age; the lightness of touch, abundance of incident, and even comedy, of the scenes are familiar in the frescoes in the British Museum. And under Akhenaton this was pervaded by an entire natural- ism of posture, as seen in the two little princesses (Plate IV. fig. 49). Drawing continued to be the strong point of the art after the more laborious sculpture had lost all vitality. The tomb of Seti shows exquisitely firm line drawing; and the heads of four races (Plate IV. fig. 50), Western, Syrian, and two Negro, here show the unfailing line- work which has never been matched in later times. The artist habitually drew the long lines of whole 68 EGYPT [ANCIENT ART limbs without a single hesitation or revoke; and the drawing of a tumbling girl (Plate IV. fig. 51) shows how credibly such contortions could be represented. The comic papyri of the XXth Dynasty have also a very strong sense of character, even through coarse drawing and some childish combinations. The subsequent centuries show continuous decline, and in whatever branch we compare the work, we see that each dynasty was poorer than that which preceded it. The XXVIth Dynasty is often looked on as a renaissance; but when we compare similar work we see that it was poorer than the XXIInd, as that was poorer than the XlXth. The alabaster statue of Amenardus of the XXVth is faulty in pose, and perfunctory in modelling; the resemblance between this and the head of her nephew Tirhaka is perhaps the best evidence of truthful work. After this there was a strong archaistic fashion, much like that under Hadrian; in both cases it may have arrested decay, but it did not lift the art up again. The work of this age can always be detected by the faulty jointing (Plate IV. fig. 52) and muscular treatment. The elements are right enough, but there was not the vital sense to combine them properly. Hence the monstrous protuberances (Plate IV. fig. 53) on relief figures of this age; a fault which the Greek fell into in his decline, as shown in the Farnese Hercules. Portraiture, with its limited demand on imagination and lack of ideals, was the form of art which flourished latest. The Saitic heads in basalt show a school of close observation, with fair power of rendering the personal character; and even in Roman times there still were provincial artists who could model a face very truthfully, as is shown in one case in which the stucco head (Plate IV. fig. 54) from a coffin is here superposed on the view of the actual skull to show the accuracy of the work. The school of portrait-painting belongs entirely to Greek art, and is therefore not touched upon here. (See Edgar, Catalogue oj Graeco-Egyptian Coffins, 48 plates, for this subject.) Lastly we must recognize the different schools of Egyptian sculpture which are as distinct as those of recent painting. The black-granite school in every age is the finest; its seat we do not know, but its vitality and finish always exceed those of contemporary works. The limestone school was probably the next best, to judge from the reliefs, but hardly any statues of this school have survived; it probably was seated at Memphis. The quartzite work from Jebel Ahmar near Cairo stands next, as often very fine design is found in this hard material. The red granite school of Assuan comes lower, the work being usually clumsy and with unfinished corners and details. And the lowest of all was the sandstone school of Silsila, which is always the worst. Broadly speaking, the Lower Egyptian was much better than the Upper Egyptian; a conclusion also evident in the art of the tombs done on the spot. But the secret of the black granite school, and its excellence, is the main problem unsolved in the history of the art. (W. M. F. P.) Tools and Material Products. Tools (see Illustrations i to in). — The history of tools is a very large subject which needs to be studied for all countries; the various details of form are too numerous to specify here, but the general outline of tools used in Egypt may be briefly stated under general and special types. The general include tools for striking, slicing and scraping; the special tools are for fighting, hunting, agriculture, building and thread-work. Striking Tools. — The wooden mallet of club form (i) was used in the Vlth and XHth Dynasties; of the modern mason's form (2) in the XHth and XVIIIth. The stone mace head was a sharp-edged disk (3), in the prehistoric from 3 1-40 sequence date; of the pear shape (4) from S.D. 42, which was actually in use till the IVth Dynasty, and represented do'wn to Roman time. The metal or stone hammer with a long handle was unknown till Greek or Roman times; but, for beating out metal, hemi- spherical stones (5) were held in the hand, and swung at arm's length overhead. Spherical hard stone hammers (6) were held in the hand for dressing down granite. The axe was at the close of the prehistoric age a square slab of copper (7) with one sharp edge; small projecting tails then appeared at each end of the back (8), and increased until the long tail for lashing on to the handle is more than half the length of the axe in an iron one of Roman (?) age (13). Flint axes were made in imitation of metal in the XHth Dynasty (9). Battle-axes with rounded outline started as merely a sharp edge of metal (10) inserted along a stick (10, n); they become semicircular (12) by the Vlth Dynasty, lengthen to double their width in the XHth, and then thin out to a waist in the middle by the XVIIIth Dynasty. Flint hoes (14) are common down to the XHth Dynasty. Small copper hoes (15) with a hollow socket are probably of about the XXIInd Dynasty. Long iron picks (16), like those of modern navvies, were made by Greeks in the XXVIth Dynasty. Slicing Tools. — The knife was originally a flint saw (17), having minute teeth; it must have been used for cutting up animals, fresh or dried, as the teeth break away on soft wood. The double- edged straight flint knife dates from S.D. 32-45. The single- edged knife (18) is from 33-65. The flint knives of the time of Menes are finely curved (19), with a handle-notch; by the end of the Hnd Dynasty they were much coarser (20) and almost straight in the back. In the Xlth-XIIth Dynasty they were quite straight in the back (21), and without any handle-notch. The copper knives are all one-edged with straight back (22) down to the XVIIIth Dynasty, when two-edged symmetrical knives (23) become usual. Long thin one-edged knives of iron begin about 800 B.C. Various forms of one-edged iron knives, straight (24) and curved (25), belong to Roman times. A cutting- out knife, for slicing through textiles, began double-edged (26) in the 1st Dynasty, and went through many single-edged forms (27-29) until it died out in the XXth'Dynasty (Man, 1901, 123). A small knife hinged on a pointed backing of copper (31) seems to have been made for hair curling and toilet purposes. Razors (30) are known of the XHth Dynasty, and became common in the XVIIIth. A curious blade of copper (32), straight sided, and sharpened at both ends, belongs to the close of the prehistoric age. Shears are only known of Roman age and appear to have been an Italian invention: there is a type in Egypt with one blade detachable, so that each can be sharpened apart. Chisels of bronze began of very small size (33) at S.D. 38, and reached a full size at the close of the prehistoric age. In historic times the chisels are about i X |, X 6 to 8 in. long (34). Small chisels set in wooden handles are found (35) of the XHth and XVIIIth Dynasties. Ferrules first appear in the Assyrian iron of the yth century B.C. The rise of stone work led to great importance of heavy chisels (36) for trimming limestone and Nubian sandstone; such chisels are usually round rods about J in. thick and 6 in. long. The cutting edge was about J in. wide for flaking tools (36), which were not kept sharp, and i in. wide for facing tools (37) which had a good edge. In Greek times the iron chisels are shorter and merge into wedges (39). The socketed or mortising chisel (38) is unknown till the Italian bronze of the 8th century B.C., and the Naucratis iron of the 6th century. Adzes begin in S.D. 56, as plain slips of copper (40) 4 to 6 in. long, about i wide and Jth thick. The square end was rounded in the early dynastic times, and went through a series of changes down to the XlXth Dynasty. . Adzes of iron are probably of Greek times. A fine instance of a handle about 4 ft. long is represented in the IHrd Dynasty (P.M. XL). The adze (41) was used not only for wood- work but also for dressing limestone. Scraping Tools. — Flint scrapers are found from S.D. 40 and onward. The rectangular scraper (42) began in S.D. 63, and continued into the Hnd Dynasty: the flake with rounded ends (43) was used from the 1st to the IVth Dynasty (P. Ab. i. xiv., xv.). Round scrapers were also made (44). Flint scrapers were used in dressing down limestone sculpture in the IHrd Dynasty. Rasps of conical form (45), made of a sheet of bronze punched and coiled round, were common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, apparently as personal objects, possibly used for rasping dried bread. In the Assyrian iron tools of the 7th century B.C. the long straight rasp (46) is exactly of the modern type. The saw is first found as a notched bronze knife of the Hlrd Dynasty. Larger toothed saws (47) are often represented in thelVth-VIth Dynasty, ANCIENT ART] EGYPT 69 as used by carpenters. There are no dated specimens till the Assyrian iron saws (48) of the 7th century B.C. Drills were of flint (49) for hard material and bead-making, of bronze for wood- work. In the Assyrian tools iron drills are of slightly twisted •coop form (50), and of centre-bit type with two scraping edges (51). In Roman times the modern V drill (52) is usual. The drill was worked by a stock with a loose cap (53), rotated by a drill bow, in the Xllth to Roman dynasties. The pump drill with cords twisted round it was in Roman use. The bow drill (56) was used as a fire drill to rotate wood (55) on wood (57); and the cap (54) for such use was of hard stone with a highly polished hollow. The drill brace appears to have been used by Assyrians in the 7th century B.C. Piercers of bronze tapering (58), to enlarge holes in leather, &c., were common in all ages. Fighting Weapons. — The battle-axe has been described above with axes. The flint dagger (59) is found from S.D. 40-56. A very finely made copper dagger (60) with deep midrib is dated to between 55 and 60 S.D. Copper daggers with parallel ribbing (6i)down the middle are common in the Xlth-XIVth Dynasties; and in the XVIIIth XXih Dynasties they are often shown in scenes and on figures. The falchion with a curved blade (62) belongs to the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasty. The rapier (63) or lengthened dagger is rarely found, and is probably of prehistoric Greek origin. The sword is of Greek and Roman age, always double-edged and of iron. The spear is not commonly found in Egypt, until the Greek age, but it is represented from the Xlth Dynasty onward; it belonged to the Semitic people (L.D.ii. 133). The bow was always of wood, in one piece in the prehistoric and early times, also of two horns in the 1st Dynasty; but the compound bow of horn is rarely found, only as an importation, in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The arrow-heads of flint (64-66) and of bone (68-69) were pointed, and also square-ended (67) for hunting (P.R.T. ii. vi.; vii. A., 7 ; xxxiv.). The copper arrow- heads appear in the XlXth Dynasty, of blade form with tang (70); the triangular form (72), and leaf form with socket (71), are of the XXVIth Dynasty. Triangular iron arrows with tang are of the same age. Tangs show that the shaft was a reed, sockets show that it was of wood. Many early arrows (Xllth) have only hard wood points of conical form. The sling is rarely shown in the XlXth-XXth Dynasties; and the only known example is probably of the XXVIth. Hunting Weapons. — The forked lance of flint was at first wide with slight hollow (73) from S.D. 32-43; then the hollow became a V notch (74) in 38 S.D. and onward. The lance was fixed in a wooden shaft for throwing, and held in by a check- cord from flying too far if it missed the animal (P.N. LXXIIL). The harpoon for fishing was at first of bone'(75), and was imitated in copper (76, 77) from S.D. 36 onwards. The boomerang or throw-stick (78) was used from the 1st to the XXIInd Dynasty, and probably later. Fish-hooks of copper (79-82) are found from the 1st Dynasty to Roman times. A trap for animals' legs, formed by splints of palm stick radiating round a central hole, is figured in S.D. 60, and one was found of probably the XXth Dynasty. Fishing nets were common in all historic times, and the lead sinkers (83) and stone sinkers (84) are often found under the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties. Agricultural Tools. — The hoe of wood (85) is the main tool from the late prehistoric time, and many have been found of the XVIIIth Dynasty. With the handle lengthened (86) and turned forward, this became the plough (87 is the hieroglyph, 88 the drawing, of a plough); this was always sloping, and never the upright post of the Italic type. The rake of wood (89) is usual in the Xllth and XVIIIth Dynasties. The fork (oo), used for tossing straw, was common in the Old Kingdom, but none has been found. The sickle was of wood (92), with flints (91) inserted, apparently a copy of the ox-jaw and teeth. The notched flints for it are common from the 1st to the XVIIIth Dynasty. In Roman times the same principle was followed, by making an iron sickle with a deep groove, in which was inserted the cutting blade of steel (P.E. XXIX.). Shovel-boards, to hold in right (93) or left hand for scraping up the grain in winnowing, are usual in the X VHIrh Dynasty, and are figured in use in the Old Kingdom. Pruning knives with curved blades (94) are Italic, and were made of iron by the Romans. Corn grinders were flat oval stones, with a smaller one lying cross-ways (95), and slid from end to end. Such were used from the Old Kingdom down to late times. In the Roman period a larger stone was used, with a rectangular slab (96) sliding on it, in which a long trough held the grain and let it slip out below for grinding. The quern with rotary motion is late Roman, and still used by Arabs. The large circular mill- stones of Roman age worked by horse-power are usually made from slices of granite columns. Building Tools. — The adze described above was used for dressing blocks of limestone. The brick-mould was an open frame, with one side prolonged into a handle (97), exactly as the modern mould. The plasterers' floats (98) were entirely cut out of wood. The mud rake for mixing mortar is rather narrower than the modern form. The square (99) and plummet (100,101) have remained unchanged since the XlXth Dynasty. For dressing flat surfaces three wooden pegs (102) of equal length were used; a string was stretched between the tops of two, and the third peg was set on the point to be tested and tried against the string. Thread-Work. — Stone spindle whorls (103) are common in the prehistoric age; wooden ones were usual, of a cylindrical form (104) in the Xllth, and conical (105) in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The thread was secured by a spiral notch in the stick. In Roman times an iron hook on the top held the thread (106) as in modern spindles. Needles of copper were made in the prehistoric, as early as S.D. 48, and very delicate ones by S.D. 71. Gold needles are found of the 1st Dynasty. Fine ones of bronze are common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and some with two eyes at right angles, one above the other, to carry two different threads. The copper bodkin is found in S.D. 70. Netters are common, of rib bones, pointed (107); the thread was wound round them. Long netting needles were probably brought in by the dynastic people as they figure in the hiero- glyphs. Finely-made ones are found in the XVIIIth Dynasty and later. Reels were also commonly used for net making, of pottery (108) or even pebbles (i09)with a groove chipped around. The flint vase-grinders were used in the early dynasties (no), and also sandstone grinders for hollowing larger vases (in). Stone-Work. — In the prehistoric ages stone building was unknown, but many varieties of stones were used for carving into vases, amulets and ornaments. The stone vases were at first of cylindrical forms, with a foot, and ears for hanging. These are worked in brown basalt, syenite, porphyry, alabaster and limestone. In the second prehistoric civilization barrel- shaped vases became usual; and to the former materials were added slate, grey limestone and breccia. Serpentine appears later, and diorite towards the close of the prehistoric ages. Flat dishes were used in earlier times; gradually deeper forms appear, and lastly the deep bowl with turned-in edge belongs to the close of the prehistoric time and continued common in the earlier dynasties (P.D.P. 19). This stone-work was usually formed on the outside with rotary motion, but sometimes the vase was rotated upon the grinder (Q. H. 17). The interior was ground out by cutters (figs. 1 10.1 1 1) fixed in the end of a stick and revolved with a weight on the top, as shown in scenes on the tombs of the Vth Dynasty. The cutters were sometimes flints of a crescent shape (P. Ab. ii. liii. 24), but more usually grinders blocks of quartzite sandstone (26-34), and occasionally of diorite (Q. H. xxxii. Ixii.). These blocks were fed with sand and water to give the bite on the stone (P. Ab. i. 26). The outsides of the vases were entirely wrought by handwork, with the polishing lines crossing diagonally. Probably the first forming was done by chipping and hammer-dressing, as in later times; the final facing of the hard stones was doubtless by means of emery in block or powder, as emery grinding blocks are found. In the early dynasties the hard stones were still worked, and the 1st dynasty was the most splendid age for vases, bowls, and dishes of the finest stones. The royal tombs have preserved an enormous quantity of fragments, from which five hundred 7o EGYPT [ANCIENT ART varied forms have been drawn (P.R.T. ii. xlvi.-liii. 6). The materials are quartz crystal, basalt, porphyry, syenite, granite, volcanic ash, various metamorphics, serpentine, slate, dolomite marble, alabaster, many coloured marbles, saccharine marble, grey and white limestones. The most splendid vase is one from Nekhen (Hieraconpolis), of syenite, 2 ft. across and 16 in. high, hollowed so as to be marvellously light and highly polished (Q. H. xxxvii). Another branch of stone- work, surface carving, was early developed by the artistic dynastic race. The great palettes of slate covered with elaborate reliefs are probably all of the pre-Menite kings; the most advanced of them having the figure of Narmer, who preceded Menes. Other carving full of detail is on the great mace-heads of Narmer and the Scorpion king, where scenes of ceremonials are minutely engraved in relief. In the 1st Dynasty the large tombstones of the kings are of bold work, but the smaller stones of private graves vary much in the style, many being very coarse. All of this work was by hammer-dressing and scraping. The scrapers seem to have always been of copper. The earliest use of stone in buildings is in the tomb of King Den (1st Dynasty), where some large flat blocks of red granite seem to have been part of the construction. The oldest stone chamber known is that of Khasekhemui (end of the Ilnd Dynasty). This is of blocks of limestone whose faces follow the natural cleavages, and only dressed where needful; part is hammer-dressed, but most of the surfaces are adze-dressed. The adze was of stone, probably flint, and had a short handle (P.R.T. ii. 13). The same king also wrought granite with inscriptions in relief. In the close of the Illrd Dynasty a great impetus was given to stone-work, and the grandest period of refined masonry is at the beginning of the IVth Dynasty under Cheops. The tombs of Medum under Snefru are built with immense blocks of limestone of 20 and 33 tons weight. The dressing of the face between the hieroglyphs was done partly with copper and partly with flint scrapers (P.M. 27). The most splendid masonry is that of the Great Pyramid of Cheops. The blocks of granite for the roofing are 56 in number, of an average weight of 54 tons each. These were out from the water-worn rocks at the Cataract — the soundest source for large masses, as any incipient flaws are well exposed by wear. The blocks were quarried by cleavage; a groove was run along the line intended, and about 2 ft. apart holes about 4 in. wide were jumped downward from it in the intended, plane; this prevented a skew fracture (P.T. 93). In shallower masses a groove was run, and then holes, apparently for wedges, were sunk deeper in the course of it; whether wetted wood was used for the expansive force is not known, but it is probable, as no signs are visible of crushing the granite by hard wedges. The facing of the cloven surfaces was done by hammer-dressing, using rounded masses of quartzose hornstone, held in the hand without any handle. In order to get a hold for moving the blocks without bruising the edges, projecting lumps or bosses were left on the faces, about 6 or 8 in. across and i or 2 in. thick. After the block was in place the boss was struck off and the surface dressed and polished (P.T. 78, 82). In the pyramid of Cheops the blocks were all faced before building; but the later granite temple of Chephren and the pyramid of Mycerinus (Menkaura, Menkeure) show a system of building with an excess of a few inches left rough on the outer surface, which was dressed away when in position (P.T. no, 132). The flatness of faces of stone or rock (both granite and lime- stone) was tested by placing a true-plane trial plate, smeared with red ochre, against the dressed surface, as in modern engineer- ing. The contact being thus reddened showed where the face had to be further dressed away; and this process was continued until the ochre touched points not more than an inch apart all over the joint faces, many square feet in area. On stones too large for facing-plates a diagonal draft was run, so as to avoid any wind in the plane (P.T. 83). The cutting of granite was not only by cleavage and hammer dressing, but also by cutting with harder materials than quartz such as emery. Long saws of copper were fed with emery powder, and used to saw out blocks as much as 7! ft. long (P.T. Plate XIV.). In other cases the very deep scores in the sides of the saw-cut suggest that fixed cutting points were inserted in the copper saws; and this would be parallel to the saw-cuts in the very hard limestone of the Palace of Tiryns, in which a piece of a copper saw has been broken, and where may be yet found large chips of emery, too long and coarse to serve as a powder, but suited for fixed teeth. A similar method was common for circular holes, which were cut by a tube, either with powder or fixed teeth. These tubular drills were used from the IVth Dynasty down to late times, in all materials from alabaster up to carnelian. The resulting cores are more regular than those of modern rock-drilling. Limestone in the Great Pyramid, as elsewhere, was dressed by chopping it with an adze, a tool used from prehistoric to Roman times for all soft stones and wood. This method was carried on up to the point of getting contact with the facing- plate at every inch of the surface; the cuts cross in various directions. For removing rock in reducing a surface to a level, or in quarrying, cuts were made with a pick, forming straight trenches, and the blocks were then broken out between these. In quarrying the cuts are generally 4 or 5 in. wide, just enough for the workman's arm to reach in; for cutting away rock the grooves are 20 in. wide, enough to stand in, and the squares of rock about 9 ft. wide between the grooves (P.T. 100). The accuracy of the workmanship in the IVth Dynasty is astonishing. The base of the pyramid of Snefru had an average variation of 6 in. on 5765 and 10' of squareness. But, immediately after, Cheops improved on this with a variation of less than 6 in. on 9069 in. and 12* of direction. Chephren fell off, having 1-5 error on 8475, and 33" of variation; and Mycerinus (Menkeurg) had 3 in. error on 4154 and i' 50* variation of direction (P.M. 6; P.T. 39, 97, 1 1 1). Of perhaps later date the two south pyramids of Dahshur show errors of 3-7 on 7459 and i-i on 2065 in., and variation of direction of 4' and 10' (P.S. 28, 30). The above smallest error of only i in 16,000 in lineal measure, and i in 17,000 of angular measure, is that of the rock-cutting for the foundation of Khufu, and the masonry itself (now destroyed) was doubtless more accurate. The error of flatness of the joints from a straight line and a true square is but riirth m- on 75 in. length; and the error of level is only -g^th in. along a course, or about 10* on a long length (P.T. 44). We have entered thus fully on the details of this period, as it is the finest age for work- manship in every respect. But in the Xllth Dynasty the granite sarcophagus of Senwosri II. is perhaps the finest single piece of cutting yet known; the surfaces of the granite are all dull- ground, the errors from straight lines and parallelism are only about -j-J-fth inch (P. i, 3). In later work we may note that copper scrapers were used for facing the limestone work in the Vlth, the Xllth and the XVIIIth Dynasties. In the latter age granite surfaces were ground, hieroglyphs were chipped out and polished by copper tools fed with emery; outlines were graved by a thick sheet of copper held in the hand, and sawed to and fro with emery. Corners of signs and intersections of lines were first fixed by minute tube-drill holes, into which the hand tool butted, so that it should not slip over the outer surface. The marking out of work was done by fine black lines; and supplemental lines at a fixed distance from the true one were put in to guard against obliteration in course of working (P.T. 92); similarly in building a brick pyramid the axis was marked, and there were supplemental marks two cubits to one side (P.K. 14). When cutting a passage in the rock a rough drift- way was first made, the roof was smoothed, a red axis line was drawn along it, and then the sides were cut parallel to the axis. For setting out a mastaba with sloping sides, on an irregular foundation at different levels, hollow corner walls were built outside the place of each corner; the distances of the faces at the above-ground level were marked on the inner faces of the walls; the above-ground level was also marked; then sloping lines at the intended angle of the face were drawn downward from the ground-level measures, and each face was set out so as to TOOLS] EGYPT MALLETS MACES 7i 6 HAMMERS 6 AXES 13 (__J HOES PICK 16 FLINT KNIVES 18 19 20 22 23 METAL KNIVES 25 24 CUTTING -OUT KNIVES 27 28 29 32 RAZORS J 31 CHISELS 33 34 S5 36 37 38 40 \L J 39 ADZES Note. The objects are drawn to a scale unless otherwise described. SCRAPERS 46 _i_ 3O 47 45 i SAWS f r\ u Ancient Egyptian TooU. EGYPT [TOOLS, &c FIGHTING 78 AGRICULTURE .11 S Note. The objects are drawn to a scale of -g- unless otherwise described. BUILDING 1 105 106 |107 &<^>f\ / VASE GRINDING "1 101 0 110 109 Ancient Egyptian Tools. ANCIENT ART] EGYPT 73 Be in the plane thus defined by two traces at the ends (P.M. Mil.). M del-Work. — Copper was wrought into pins, a couple of inches long, with loop heads, as early as the oldest prehistoric graves, before the use of weaving, and while pottery was scarcely developed. The use of harpoons and small chisels of copper next arose, then broad flaying knives, needles and adzes, lastly the axe when the metal was commoner. On these prehistoric tools, when in fine condition, the original highly-polished surface remains. It shows no trace of grinding lines or attrition, nor yet of the blows of a hammer. Probably it was thus highly finished by beating between polished stone hammers which were almost flat on the face. Most likely the forms of the tools were cast to begin with, and then finished and polished by fine ham- mering. A series of moulds for casting in the XI Ith Dynasty show that the forms were carved out in thick pieces of pottery, and then lined with fine ashy clay. The mould was single, so that one side of the tool was the open face of metal. As early as the pyramid times solid casting by (ire perdue was already used for figures: but the copper statues of Pepi and his son seem, by their thinness and the piecing together of the parts, to have been entirely hammered out. The portraiture in such hammer work is amazingly life-like. By the time of the Xllth Dynasty, and perhaps earlier, cire perdue casting over an ash core became usual. This was carried out most skilfully, the metal being often not g^ th in. thick, and the core truly centred in the mould. Casting bronze over iron rods was also done, to gain more stiffness for thin parts. In gold work the earliest jewelry, that of Ring Zer of the 1st Dynasty, shows a perfect mastery of working hollow balls with minute threading holes, and of soldering with no trace of excess nor difference of colour. Thin wire was hammered out, but there is no ancient instance of drawn wire. Castings were not trimmed by filing or grinding, but by small chisels and hammering (P.R.T. ii. 17). In the Xllth Dynasty the soldering of the thin cells for the cloisonne* inlaid pectorals, on to the base plate, is a marvellous piece of delicacy; every cell has to be perfectly true in form, and yet all soldered, apparently simul- taneously, as the heat could not be applied to successive portions (M.D. i.). Such work was kept up in the XVUIth and XXVIth Dynasties. There is nothing distinctive in later jewelry different from Greek and Roman work elsewhere. Close and Glass. — From almost the beginning of the prehistoric age there are glazed pottery beads found in the graves: and glazing on amulets of quartz or other stones begins in the middle of the prehistoric. Apparently then glazing went together with the working of the copper ores, and probably accidental slags in the smelting gave the first idea of using glaze intentionally. The development of glazing at the beginning of the dynasties was sudden and effective. Large tiles, a foot in length, were glazed completely all over, and used to line the walls of rooms; they were retained in place by deep dovetails and ties of copper wire. Figures of glazed ware became abundant ; a kind of visiting card was made with the figure of a man and his titles to present in temples which he visited; and glazed ornaments and toggles for fastening dresses were common (I". Ah. ii.). Further, besides thus using glaze on a large scale, differently coloured glazes were used, and even fused together. A piece of a large tile, and part of a glazed vase, have the royal titles and name of Menes, originally in violet inlay in green glaze. There was no further advance in the art until the great variety of colours came into use about 4000 yean later. In the Xllth Dynasty a very thin smooth glaze was used, which became rather thicker in the XVIIIth. The most brilliant age of glazes was under Amcnophis III. and his son Akhenaton. Various colours were used; beside the old green and blue, there were purple, violet, red, yellow and white. And a profusion of forms is shown by the moulds and actual examples, for necklaces, decorations, inlay in stone and applied reliefs on vases. Under Seti II. cartouches of the king in violet and white glaze are common; and under Rameses III. there were vases with relief figures, with painted figures, and tiles with coloured reliefs of captives of many races. The latter development of glazing was in thin delicate apple-green ware with low relief designs, which seem to have originated under Greek influence at Naucratis. The Roman glaze is thick and coarse, but usually of a brilliant Prussian blue, with dark purple and apple-green; and high reliefs of wreaths, and sometimes figures, are common. Though glaze begins so early, the use of the glassy matter by itself does not occur till the XVIIIth Dynasty; the earlier reputed examples are of stone or frit. The first glass is black and white under Tethmosis (Tahutmes) III. It was not fused at a high point, but kept in a pasty state when working. The main use of it was for small vases; these were formed upon a core of sandy paste, which was modelled on a copper rod, the rod being the core for the neck. Round this core threads of glass were wound of various colours; the whole could bejeset in the furnace to soften it for moulding the foot or neck, or attaching handles, or dragging the surface into various patterns. The colours under later kings were as varied as those of the glazes. Glass was also wheel -cut in patterns and shapes under Akhenaton. In latec times the main work was in mosaics of extreme delicacy. Glass rods were piled together to form a pattern in cross-section. The whole was then heated until it perfectly adhered, and the mass was drawn out lengthways so as to render the design far more minute, and to increase the total length for cutting up. The rod was then sliced across, and the pieces used for inlaying. Another use of coloured glass was for cutting in the shapes of hieroglyphs for inlaying in wooden coffins to form inscriptions. Glass amulets were also commonly placed upon Ptolemaic mummies. Blown glass vessels are not known until late Greek and Roman times, when they were of much the same manufacture as glass elsewhere. The supposed figures of glass-blowers in early scenes are really those of smiths, blowing their fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. The variegated glass beads belonging to Italy were greatly used in Egypt in Roman times, and are like those found elsewhere. A distinctively late Egyptian use of glass was for weights and vase-stamps, to receive an impress stating the amount of the weight or measure. The vase-stamps often state the name of the contents (always seeds or fruits), probably not to show what was in them, but to show for what kind of seed the vessel was a true measure. These measure stamps bear names dating them from A.D. 680 to about 950. The large weights of ounces and pounds are disks or cuboid blocks; they are dated from 720 to 785 for the lesser, and to A.D. 915 for larger, weights. The greater number are, however, small weights for testing gold and silver coins of later caliphs from A.D. 952 to 1171. The system was not, however, Arab, as there are a few Roman vase- stamps and weights. Of other medieval glass may be noted the splendid glass vases for lamps, with Arab inscriptions fused in colours on the outsides. No enamelling was ever done by Egyptians, and the few rare examples are all of Roman age due to foreign work. The manufacture of glass is shown by examples in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The blue or green colour was made by fritting to- gether silica, lime, alkaline carbonate and copper carbonate; the latter varied from 3% in delicate blues to 20% in deep purple blues. The silica was needed quite pure from iron, in order to get the rich blues, and was obtained from calcined quartz pebbles; ordinary sand will only make a green frit. These materials were heated in pans in the furnace so as to combine in a pasty, half-fused condition. The coloured frit thus formed was used as paint in a wet state, and also used to dissolve in glass or to fuse over a surface in glazing. The brown tints often seen in glazed objects are almost always the result of the decomposition of green glazes containing iron. The blue glazes, on the other hand, fade into white. The essential colouring materials are, for blue, copper; green, copper and iron; purple, cobalt; red, haematite; white, tin. An entirely clear colourless glass was made in the XVIIIth Dynasty, but coloured glass was mainly used. After fusing a panful of coloured glass, it was sampled by taking pinches out with tongs; when perfectly combined it was left to cool in the pan, as with modern optical glass. When cold the pan was chipped away, and the cake of glass broken up into convenient pieces, free of sediment and of 74 EGYPT [ANCIENT ART scum. A broken lump would then be heated to softness in the furnace; rolled out under a bar of metal, held diagonally across the roll; and when reduced to a rod of a quarter of an inch thick, it was heated and pulled out into even rods about an eighth of an inch thick. These were used to wind round glass vases, to form lips, handles, &c.; and to twist together for spiral patterns. Glass tube was similarly drawn out. Beads were made by winding thin threads of glass on copper wires, and the greater contraction of the copper freed the bead when cold. The coiling of beads can always be detected by (i) the little tails left at the ends, (2) the streaks, (3) the bubbles, seen with a magnifier. Roman glass beads are always drawn out, and nicked off hot, with stria tion lengthways; except the large opaque variegated beads which are coiled. Modern Venetian beads are similarly coiled. In the XXIIIrd Dynasty beads of a rich transparent Prussian blue glass were made, until the XXVIth. About the same time the eyed beads, with white and brown eyes in a blue mass, also came in (P.A. 25-27, Plate XIII.). Pottery (see fig. 112). — The earliest style of pottery is entirely hand made, without any rotary motion; the form being" built up with a flat stick inside and the hand outside, and finally scraped and burnished in a vertical direction. The necks of vases were the first part finished with rotation, at the middle and close of the prehistoric age. Fully turned forms occur in the 1st Dynasty; but as late as the Xllth Dynasty the lower part of small vases is usually trimmed with a knife. In the earlier part of the prehistoric age there was a soft brown ware with haematite facing, highly burnished. This was burnt mouth-down in the oven, and the ashes on the ground reduced the red haematite to black magnetic oxide of iron; some traces of carbonyl in the ash helped to rearrange the magnetite as a brilliant mirror-like surface of intense black. The lower range of jars in the oven had then black tops, while the upper ranges were entirely red. A favourite decoration was by lines of white clay slip, in crossing patterns, figures of animals, and, rarely, men. This is exactly of the modern Kabyle style in Algeria, and entirely disappeared from Egypt very early in the prehistoric age. Being entirely hand made, various oval, doubled and even square forms were readily shaped. The later prehistoric age is marked by entirely different pottery, of a hard pink-brown ware, often with white specks in it, without any applied facing beyond an occasional pink wash, and no polishing. It is decorated with designs in red line, imitating cordage and marbling, and drawings of plants, ostriches and ships. The older red polished ware still survived in a coarse and degraded character, and both kinds together were carried on into the next age (P.D.P.). The early dynastic pottery not only shows the decadent end of the earlier forms, but also new styles, such as grand jars of 2 or 3 ft. high which were slung in cordage, and which have imitation lines of cordage marked on them. Large ring-stands also were brought in, to support jars, so that the damp surfaces should not touch the dusty ground. The pyramid times show the great jars reduced to short rough pots, while a variety of forms of bowls are the most usual types (P.R.T.; P.D.; P. Desh.) In the Xllth Dynasty a hard thin drab ware was common, like the modern qulleh water flasks. Drop-shaped jars with spherical bases are typical, and scrabbled patterns of incised lines. Large jars of light brown pottery were made for storing liquids and grain, with narrow necks which just admit the hand (P.K.). The XVIIIth Dynasty used a rather softer ware, decorated at first with a red edge or band around the top, and under Tethmosis (Tahutmes) III. black and red lines were usual. Under Amenophis III. blue frit paint was freely used, in lines and bands around vases; it spread to large surfaces under Amenophis IV., and continued in a poor style into the Ramesside age. In the latter part of the XVIIIth and the XlXth Dynasties a thick hard light pottery, with white specks and a polished drab-white facing, was generally used for all fine purposes. The XlXth and XXth Dynasties only show a degradation of the types of the XVIIIth; and even through to the XXVth Dynasty there is no new movement (P.K.; P.I; P. A.; P.S.T.). The XXVIth Dynasty was largely influenced by Greek amphorae imported with wine and oil. The native pottery is of a very fine paste, smooth and thin, but poor in forms. Cylin- drical cups, and jars with cylindrical necks and no brim, are typical. The small necks and trivial handles begin now, and are very common in Ptolemaic times (P.T. ii.). The great period of Roman pottery is marked by the ribbing on the outsides. The amphorae began to be ribbed about A.D. 150, and then ribbing extended to all the forms. The ware is generally rather rough, thick and brown for the amphorae, thin and red for smaller vessels. At the Constantino age a new style begins, of hard pink ware, neatly made, and often with " start-patterns " made by a vibrating tool while the vessel rotated: this was mainly used for bowls and cups (P.E.). Of the later pottery of Arab times we have no precise knowledge. The abbreviations used above refer to the following sources of information : — M.D. Morgan, Dahshur; P.A. Petrie, Tell el Amarna; P. Ab. P.O. P. Desh. P.D.P. P.E. P.I. P.K. P.M. P.N. P.R.T. P.S. P.S.T. P.T. P.T. ii. Abydos; Dendereh ; Deshasheh; Diospolis Parva ; Ehnasya; lllahun; Kahun; Medum ; Naqada; Royal Tombs; Season in Egypt; Six Temples; Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh; Tanis, ii. ; Q.H. Quibell, Hieraconpolis. (W. M. F. P.) Monuments. — The principal monuments that are yet remaining to illustrate the art and history of Egypt may be best taken in historical order. Of the prehistoric age there are many rock carvings, associated with others of later periods: they principally remain on the sandstone rocks about Silsila, and their age is shown by the figures of ostriches which were extinct in later times. One painted tomb was found at Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) , now in the Cairo Museum; the brick walls were colour-washed and covered with irregular groups of men, animals and ships, painted with red, black and green. The cemeteries otherwise only contain graves, cut in gravel or brick lined, and formerly roofed with poles and brushwood. The 1st to Illrd Dynasties have left at Abydos large forts of brickwork, remains of two successive temples, and the royal tombs (see ABYDOS). Else- where are but few other monuments; at Wadi Maghara in Sinai is a rock sculpture of Semerkhet of the 1st Dynasty in perfect state, at Giza is a group of tombs of a prince and retinue of the 1st Dynasty, and at Giza and Bet Khallaf are two large brick mastabas with extensive passages closed by trap-doors, of kings of the Illrd Dynasty. The main structure of this age is the step-pyramid of Sakkara, which is a mastaba tomb with eleven successive coats of masonry, enlarging it to about 350 by 390 ft. and 200 ft. high. In the interior is sunk in the rock a chamber 24X23 ft. and 77 ft. high, with a granite sepulchre built in the floor of it, and various passages and chambers branching from it. The doorway of one room (now in Berlin Museum) was decorated with polychrome glazed tiles with the name of King Neterkhet. The complex original work and various alterations of it need thorough study, but it is now closed and research is forbidden. The IVth to Vlth Dynasties are best known by the series of pyramids (see PYRAMID) in the region of Memphis. Beyond these tombs, and the temples attached to them, there are very few fixed monuments; of Cheops and Pepi I. there are temple foundations at Abydos (q.v.), and a few blocks on other sites; of Neuserre (Raenuser) there is a sun temple at Abuslr; and of several kings there were tablets in Sinai, now in the Cairo Museum. A few tablets of the IXth Dynasty have been found at Sakkara, and a tomb of a prince at Asstot. Of the Xlth Dynasty is the POTTERY] EGYPT 75 EARLY PREHISTORIC 7000-6000 ac. i»T DYNASTY 4800-4500 BC. vr- DYNASTY 4000- 3300 B.C. xii1- DYNASTY 2800-2500 B.C XVlii™ DYNASTY 1500-1350 BC. XIX™ DYNASTY 000- HOO BC XXVIT" DYNASTY 700 500 BC Fio. 112.— Principal Types of Pottery of Ancient Egypt. (Scale I : 20.) EGYPT [ANCIENT ART terrace-temple of Menthotp III. recently excavated at Thebes: also foundations of this king and of Sankhkere at Abydos. In the XHth Dynasty there is the celebrated red granite obelisk of Heliopolis, one of a pair erected by Senwosri (Senusert) I. in front of his temple which has now vanished. Another large obelisk of red granite, 41 ft. high, remains in the Fayttm. The most important pictorial tombs of Beni Hasan belong to this age; the great princes appear to have largely quarried stone for their palaces, and to have cut the quarry in the form of a regular chamber, which served for the tomb chapel. These great rock chambers were covered with paintings, which show a large range of the daily life and civilization. The pyramids and temples of Senwosri II. and III. and Amenemhe III. remain at Illahun, Dahshur and Hawjira. The latter was the celebrated Labyrinth, which has been entirely quarried away, so that only banks of chips and a few blocks remain. At the first of these sites is the most perfect early town, of which hundreds of houses still remain. Of Senwosri III. there are the forts and temples above the second cataract at Semna and Kumma. Of the Hyksos age there are the scanty remains of a great fortified camp at Tell el-Yehudia. In the XVIIIth to XXth Dynasties we reach the great period of monuments. Of Amasis (Aahmes) and Amenophis I. there are but fragments left in later buildings; and of the latter a great quantity of sculpture has been recovered at Karnak. The great temple of Karnak had existed since the Xlth Dynasty or earlier, but the existing structure was begun under Tethmosis (Tahutmes) I., and two of the great pylons and one obelisk of his remain in place. He also built the simple and dignified temple of Medinet Habu at Thebes, which was afterward over- shadowed by the grandiose work of Rameses III. The next generation — Tethmosis II. and Hatshepsut — added to their father's work; they also built another pylon and some of the existing chambers at Karnak, set up the great obelisks there and carved some colossi. The obelisks are exquisitely cut in red granite, each sign being sawn in shape by copper tools fed with emery, and the whole finished with a perfection of pro- portion and delicacy not seen on other granite work. One obelisk being overthrown and broken we can examine the minute treatment of the upper part, which was nearly a hundred feet from the ground. The principal monument of this period is the temple of Deir el Bahri, the funeral temple of Hatshepsut, on which she recorded the principal event of her reign, the expedi- tion to Punt. The erasures of her name by Tethmosis III., and reinsertions of names under later kings, the military scenes, and the religious groups showing the sacred kine of Hathor, all add to the interest of the remarkable temple. It stands on three successive terraces, rising to the base of the high limestone cliffs behind it. The rock-cut shrine at Specs Artemidos, and the temple of Serablt in Sinai are the only other large monuments of this queen yet remaining. Tethmosis III. was one of the great builders of Egypt, and much remains of his work, at about forty different sites. The great temple of Karnak was largely built by him; most of the remaining chambers are his, including the beautiful botanical walls showing foreign plants. Of his work at Heliopolis there remain the obelisks of London and New York; and from Elephantine is the obelisk at Sion House. On the Nubian sites his work may still be seen at Amada, Ellesia, Ibrim, Semna and in Sinai at Serablt el Khadem. Of Amenophis II. and Tethmosis IV. there are no large monuments, they being mainly known by additions at Karnak. The well known stele of the sphinx was cut by the latter king, to com- memorate his dream there and his clearing of the sphinx from sand. Amenophis III. has left several large buildings of his magnificent reign. At Karnak the temple had a new front added as a great pylon, which was later used as the back of the hall of columns by Seti I. But three new temples at Karnak, that of Month (Mentu), of Mut and a smaller one, all are due to this reign, as well as the long avenue of sphinxes before the temple of Khons; these indicate that the present Ramesside temple of Khons has superseded an earlier one of this king. The great temple of Luxor was built to record the divine origin of the king as son of Ammon; and on the western side of Thebes the funerary temple of Amenophis was an immense pile, of which the two colossi of the Theban plain still stand before the front of the site, where yet lies a vast tablet of sand- stone 30 ft. high. The other principal buildings are the temples of Sedenga and of Solib in Nubia. Akhenaton has been so consistently eclipsed by the later kings who destroyed his work, that the painted pavement and the rock tablets of Tell el Amarna are the only monuments of his still in position, beside a few small inscriptions. Harmahib (Horemheb) resumed the work at Karnak, erecting two great pylons and a long avenue of sphinxes. The rock temple at Silsila and a shrine at Jebel Adda are also his. In the XlXth Dynasty the great age of building continued, and the remains are less destroyed than the earlier temples, because there were subsequently fewer unscrupulous rulers to quarry them away. Seti I. greatly extended the national temple of Karnak by his immense hall of columns added in front of the pylon of Amenophis III. His funerary temple at Kurna is also in a fairly complete condition. The temple of Abydos is celebrated owing to its completeness, and the perfect condition of its sculptures, which render it one of the most interesting buildings as an artistic monument; and the variety of religious subjects adds to its importance. The very long reign and vanity of Rameses II. have combined to leave his name at over sixty sites, more widely spread than that of any other king. Yet very few great monuments were originated by him; even the Ramesseum, his funerary temple, was begun by his father. Additions, appropriations of earlier works and scattered inscrip- tions are what mark this reign. The principal remaining build- ings are part of a court at Memphis, the second temple at Abydos, and the six Nubian temples of Bet el-Wali, Jerf Husein, Wadi es-Sebua, Derr, and the grandest of all — the rock-cut temple of Abu Simbel, with its neighbouring temple of Hathor. Mineptah has left few original works; the Osireum at Abydos is the only one of which much remains, his funerary temple having been destroyed as completely as he destroyed that of Amenophis III. The celebrated Israel stele from this temple in his principal inscription. The rock shrines at Silsila are of small importance. There is no noticeable monument of the dozen troubled years of the end of the dynasty. The XXth Dynasty opened with the great builder Rameses III. Probably he did not really exceed other kings in his activity; but as being the last of the building kings at the western side of Thebes, his temple has never been devastated for stone by the claims of later work. The whole building of Medinet Habu is about 500 ft. long and 160 wide, entirely the work of one reign. The sculptures of it are mainly occupied with the campaigns of the king against the Libyans, the Syrians and the negroes, and are of the greatest importance for the history of Egypt and of the Mediterranean lands. Another large work was the clearance and rebuilding of much of the city of Tell el Yehudia, the palace hall of which contained the cele- brated coloured tiles with figures of captives. At Karnak three temples, to Ammon, Khonsu and Mut, all belong to this reign. The blighted reigns of the later Ramessides and the priest-kings did not leave a single great monument, and they are only known by usurpations of the work of others. The Tanite kings of the XXIst Dynasty rebuilt the temple of their capital, but did little else. The XXIInd Dynasty returned to monumental work. Sheshonk I. added a large wall at Karnak; covered with the record of his Judaean war. Osorkon (Uasarkon) I. built largely at Bubastis, and Osorkon II. added the great granite pylon there, covered with scenes of his festival; but at Thebes these kings only inscribed previous monuments. The Ethiopian (XXVth) dynasty built mainly in their capital under Mount Barkal, and Shabako and Tirhaka (Tahrak) also left chapels and a pylon at Thebes; and the latter added a great colonnade leading up to the temple of Karnak, of which one column is still standing. Of the Saite kings there are very few large monuments. Their work was mainly of limestone and built in the Delta, and CHRONOLOGY] EGYPT 77 hence it has been entirely swept away. TV square fort of brick- work at Daphnae (q.t.) was built by 1'sammetichus I. Of Aprics (Haa-ab-ra, Hophra) an obelisk and two monolith shrines are the principal remains. Of Amasis (Aahmes) II. five great shrines are known; but the uth.r kings of this age have only left minor works. The Persians kept up Egyptian monuments. Darius I. quarried largely, and left a series of great granite decrees along his Suez canal; he also built the great temple in the oasis of Kharga. The XXXlh Dynasty renewed the period of great temples. Nekhtharheb built the temple of Bchbtt, now a ruinous heap of immense blocks of granite. Beside other temples, now destroyed, he set up the great west pylon of Karnak, and the pylon at Kharga. Nekhtnebf built the Hathor temple and great pylon at Philae, and the east pylon of Karnak, beside temples elsewhere, now vanished. Religious building was continued under the Ptolemies and Romans; and though the royal impulse may not have been strong, yet the wealth of the land under good government supplied means for many places to rebuild their old shrines magnificently. In the Fayum the capital was dedicated to Queen Arsinoe, and doubtless Ptolemy rebuilt the temple, now destroyed. At Sharona are remains of a temple of Ptolemy I. Dendera is one of the most complete temples, giving a noble idea of the appearance of such work anciently. The body of the temple is of Ptolemy XIII., and was carved as late as the XVIth (Caesarion), and the great portico was in building from Augustus to Nero. At Coptos was a screen of the temple of Ptolemy I. (now at Oxford), and a chapel still remains of Ptolemy XIII. Karnak was largely decorated; a granite cella was built under Philip Arrhidaeus, covered with elaborate carving; a great pylon was added to the temple of Khonsu by Ptolemy III.; the inner pylon of the Ammon-temple was carved by Ptolemy VI. and IX.; and granite doorways were added to the temples of Month and Mot by Ptolemy II. At Luxor the entire cella was rebuilt by Alexander. At Medlnet Habfl the temple of Tethmosis III. had a doorway built by Ptolemy X., and a forecourt by Antoninus. The smaller temple was built under Ptolemy X. and the emperors. South of Medlnet HabQ a small temple was built by Hadrian and Antoninus. At Esna the great temple was rebuilt and inscribed during a couple of centuries from Titus to Decius. At £1 Kab the temple dates from Ptolemy IX. and X. The great temple of Edfu, which has its enclosure walls and pylon complete, and is the most perfect example remaining, was gradually built during a century and a half from Ptolemy III. to XI. The monuments of Philae begin with the wall of Nekht- nebf. Ptolemy II. began the great temple, and the temple of Arhesnofer (Arsenuphis) is due to Ptolemy IV., that of Asclepius to Ptolemy V., that of Hathor to Ptolemy VI., and the great colonnades belong to Ptolemy XIII. and Augustus. The beautiful little riverside temple, called the "kiosk," was built by Augustus and inscribed by Trajan; and the latest building was the arch of Diocletian. Farther south, in Nubia, the temples of Dabod and Dakka were built by the Ethiopian -Ergamenes, contemporary of Ptolemy IV.; and the temple of DendQr is of Augustus. The latest building of the temple style is the White Monastery near Suhag. The external form is that of a great temple, with windows added along the top; while internally it was a Christian church. The modern dwellings in it have now been cleared out, and the interior admirably preserved and cleaned by a native Syrian architect. Beside the great monuments, which we have now noticed, the historical material is found on several other classes of remains. These are: (i) The royal tombs, which in the Vth, Vlth; XVIIIth, XlXth and XXth Dynasties are fully inscribed; but as the texts are always religious and not historical, they are less important than many other remains. (2) The royal coffins and wrappings, which give information by the added graffiti recording their removals; (3) Royal tablets, which are of the highest value for history, as they often describe or imply historical events; (4) Private tombs and tablets, which are in many cases biographical. (5) Papyri concerning dafly affairs which throw light on history; or which give historic detail, as the great papyrus of Ramcses III., and the trials under Rameses X. (6) The added inscriptions on buildings by later restorers, and alterations of names for misappropriation. (7) The statues which give the royal portraits, and sometimes historical facts. (8) The oslrara, or rough notes of work accounts, and plans drawn on pieces of limestone or pottery. (9) The scarabs bearing kings' names, which under the Hyksos and in some other dark periods, are our main source of information. (10) The miscellaneous small remains of toilet objects, ornaments, weapons, &c., many of which bear royal names. Every object and monument with a royal name will be found catalogued under each reign in Petrie's History of Egypt, 3 vols., the last editions of each being the fullest. (W. M. F. P.) F. Chronology. — i. Technical. — The standard year of the Ancient Egyptians consisted of twelve months of thirty days ' each, with five epagomenal days, in all 365 days. It was thus an effective compromise between the solar year and the lunar month, and contrasts very favourably with the intricate and clumsy years of other ancient systems. The leap-year of the Julian and Gregorian calendars confers the immense benefit of a fixed correspondence to the seasons which the Egyptian year did not possess, but the uniform length of the Egyptian months is enviable even now. The months were grouped under three seasons of four months each, and were known respectively as the first, second, third and fourth month I > II - III > I III of TtTtT ® O (I'b-t) " inundation " or " verdure," C * pr-t pro) " seed-time," " winter," and " harvest," " summer," the = = O (shorn) "five (days) over the year " being outside these seasons and the year itself, according to the Egyptian expression, and counted either at the beginning or at the end of the year. Ultimately the Egyptians gave names to the months taken from festivals celebrated in them, in order as follows: — Thoth, Paophi, Athyr, Choiak, Tobi, Mechlr, Phamenoth, Pharmuthi, Pachons, Payni, Epiphi, Mesore, the epagomenal days being then called " the short year." In Egypt the agricultural seasons depend more immediately on the Nile than on the solar movements; the first day of the first month of inundation, i.e. nominally the beginning of the rise of the Nile, was the beginning of the year, and as the Nile commences to rise very regularly at about the date of the annual heliacal rising of the conspicuous dog-star Sothis (Sinus) (which itself follows extremely closely the slow retrogression of the Julian year), the primitive astronomers found in the heliacal rising of Sothis as observed at Memphis (on July 19 Julian) a very correct and useful starting-point for the seasonal year. But the year of 365 days lost one day in four years of the Sothic or Julian year, so that in 121 Egyptian years New Year's day fell a whole month too early according to the seasons, and in 1461 years a whole year was lost. This " Sothic period " or era of 1460 years, during which the Egyptian New Year's day travelled all round the Sothic year, is recorded by Greek and Roman writers at least as early as the ist century B.C. The epagomenal days appear on a monument of the Vth Dynasty and in the very ancient Pyramid texts. They were considered unlucky, and perhaps this accounts for the curious fact that, although they are named in journals and in festival lists, &c., where precise dating was needed, no known monument or legal document is dated in them. It is, however, quite possible that by the side of the year of 365 days a shorter year of 360 was employed for some purposes. Lunar months 1 Ten-day periods as subdivisions of the month can be traced as far back as the Middle Kingdom. The day consisted of twenty- four hours, twelve of day (counted from sunrise to sunset) and twelve of night ; it began at sunrise. EGYPT [CHRONOLOGY were observed in the regulation of temples, and lunar years, &c., have been suspected. To find uniformity in any department in Egyptian practice would be exceptional. By the decree of Canopus, Ptolemy III.Euergetes introduced through the assembly of priests an extra day every fourth year, but this reform had no acceptation until it was reimposed by Augustus with the Julian calendar. Whether any earlier attempt was made to adjust the civil to the solar or Sothic year in order to restore the festivals to their proper places in the seasons temporarily or otherwise, is a question of great importance for chronology, but at present it remains unanswered. Probably neither the Sothic nor any other era was employed by the ancient Egyptians, who dated solely by regnal years (see below). An inscription of Rameses II. at Tanis is dated in the 4Ooth year of the reign of the god Seth of Ombos, probably with reference to some religious ordinance during the rule of the Seth-worshipping Hyksos; Rameses II. may well have celebrated its quater- centenary, but it is wrong to argue from this piece of evidence alone that an era of Seth was ever observed. From the Middle Kingdom onward to the Roman period, the dates upon Egyptian documents are given in regnal years. On the oldest monuments the years in a reign were not numbered consecutively but were named after events; thus in the 1st Dynasty we find " the year of smiting the Antiu-people," in the beginning of the Illrd Dynasty " the year of fighting and smiting the people of Lower Egypt." But under the Ilnd Dynasty there was a census of property for taxation every two years, and the custom, continuing (with some irregularities) for a long time, offered a uniform mode of marking years, whether current or past. Thus such dates are met with as " the year of the third time of numbering " of a particular king, the next being desig- nated as " the year after the third time of numbering." Under the Vth Dynasty this method was so much the rule that the words " of numbering " were commonly omitted. It would seem that in the course of the next dynasty the census became annual instead of biennial, so that the " times " agreed with the actual years of reign; thenceforward their consecutive designation as " first time," " second time," for " first year," " second year," was as simple as it well could be, and lasted unchanged to the fall of paganism. The question arises from what point these regnal dates were calculated. Successive regnal years might begin (i) on the anniversary of the king's accession, or (2) on the calendrical beginning in each year (normally on the first day of the nominal First month of inundation, i.e. ist Thoth in the later calendar). In the latter case there would be a further consideration: was the portion of a calendar year following the accession of the new king counted to the last year of the outgoing king, or to the first year of the new king? In Dynasties I., IV.-V., XVIII. there are instances of the first mode (i), in Dynasties II., VI. (?), XII., XXVI. and onwards they follow the second (2). It may be that the practice was not uniform in all documents even of, the same age. In Ptolemaic times not only were Macedonian dates sometimes given in Greek documents, but there were certainly two native modes of dating current; down to the reign of Euergetes there was a " fiscal " dating in papyri, according to which the year began in Paophi, besides a civil dating probably from Thoth; later, all the dates in papyri start from Thoth. The Macedonian year is found in early Ptolemaic documents. The fixed year of the Canopic decree under Euergetes (with ist Thoth on Oct. 22) was never adopted. Augustus estab- lished an " Alexandrian " era with the fixed Julian year, retaining the Egyptian months, with a sixth epagomenal day every fourth year. The capture of Alexandria having taken place on the ist of August 30 B.C., the era began nominally in 30 B.C., but it was not actually introduced till some years later, from which time the ist Thoth corresponded with the zpth of August in the Julian year. The vague " Egyptian " year, however, continued in use in native documents for some centuries along with the Alexandrian " Ionian " year. The era of Dio- cletian dates from the 2gth of August 284, the year of his reforms; later, however, the Christians called it the era of the Martyrs (though the persecution was not until 302), and it survived the Arab conquest. The dating by indictions, i.e. Roman tax- censuses, taking place every fifteenth year, probably originated in Egypt, in A.D. 312, the year »f the defeat of Maxentius. The indictions began in Payni of the. fixed year, when the harvest had been secured. See F. K. Ginzel, Handbuch der mathematischen and technischen Chronologie, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1906), and the bibliography in the following section. 2. Historical} — As to absolute chronology, the assigning of a regnal year to a definite date B.C. is clear enough (except in occasional detail) from the conquest by Alexander onwards. Before that time, in spite of successive efforts to establish a chronology, the problem is very obscure. The materials for reconstructing the absolute chronology are of several kinds: (i) Regnal dates as given on contemporary monuments may indicate the lengths of individual reigns, but not with accuracy, as they seldom reach to the end of a reign and do not allow for co-regencies. Records of the time that has elapsed between two regnal dates in the reigns of different kings are very helpful; thus stelae from the Serapeum recording the ages of the Apis bulls with the dates of their birth and death have fixed the chronology of the XXVIth Dynasty. Traditional evidence for the lengths of reigns exists in the Turin Papyrus of kings and in Manetho's history; unfortunately the papyrus is very frag- mentary and preserves few reign-lengths entire, and Manetho's evidence seems very untrustworthy, being known only from late excerpts. (2) The duration of a period may be calculated by generations or the probable average lengths of reigns, but such calculations are of little value, and the succession of generations even when the evidence seems to be full is particularly difficult to ascertain in Egyptian, owing to adoptions and the repetition of the same name even in one family of brothers and sisters. (3) Synchronisms in the histories of other countries furnish reliable dates — Greek, Persian, Babylonian and Biblical dates for the XXVIth Dynasty, Assyrian for the XXV th; less precise are the Biblical date of Rehoboam, contemporary with the invasion of Shishak (Sheshonk) in the XXIInd Dynasty, and the date of the Babylonian and Assyrian kings contemporary with Amenhotp IV. in the XVTIIth Dynasty. The last, about 1400 B.C., is the earliest point to which such coincidences reach. (4) Astronomical data, especially the heliacal risings of Sothis recorded by dates of their celebration in the vague year. These are easily calculated on the assumption first that the observations were correctly made, secondly that the calendrical dates are in the year of 365 days beginning on ist Thoth, and thirdly that this year subsequently underwent no readjustment or other alteration before the reign of Euergetes. The assumption may be a reasonable one, and if the results agree with probabilities as deduced from the rest of the evidence it is wise to adopt it; if on the other hand the other evidence seems in any serious degree contrary to those results it may be surmised that the assumption is faulty in some particular. The harvest date referred to below helps to show that the first part of the assump- tion is justified. The duration of the reigns in several dynasties is fairly well known from the incontrovertible evidence of contemporary monuments. The XXVIth Dynasty, which lasted 139 years, is particularly clear, and synchronisms fix its regnal dates to the years B.C. within an error of one or two years at most. The lengths of several reigns in the Xllth, XVIIIth and XlXth Dynasties are known, and the sum total for the Xllth Dynasty is preserved better than any other in the Turin Papyrus, which was written under the XlXth Dynasty. The succession and number of the kings are also ascertained for other dynasties, together with many regnal dates, but very serious gaps exist in the records of the Egyptian monuments, the worst being between the Xllth and the XVIIIth Dynasties, between the Xlth and the Vlth, and at Dynasties I.-III. For the chronology before the time of the XXVIth Dynasty Herodotus's history 1 For the " sequence " dating (S.D.) used by archaeologists for the prehistoric period see above (§ Art and Archaeology, ad init. note). CHRONOLOGY! EGYPT 79 is quite worthless. Manetho alone of all authorities offers a complete chronology from the 1st Dynasty to the XXXth. In the case of the six kings of the XXVIth Dynasty, Africanus, the best of his excerptors, gives correct figures for five reigns, but attributes six instead of sixteen years to Necho; the other excerptors have wrong numbers throughout. For the XlXth Dvn**tv. Meyer 1887 (minimum date). Petrie 1894, &c. Meyer 1904-1908. Sethe I90S- Breasted 1906. Petrie 1906. I. j 4777 3315 3360 3400 55«o II. 3180 45>4 3110 5247 III. ) 4212 2895 2810 2980 4945 IV. 2830 3998 MM 2720 2900 473 « V. 3721 2680 2630 275° 4454 VI. 2530 35°3 254° 2480 2625 4206 VII. > U'- 2300 2475 4003 VIII. \- S- 3933 IX. 3106 2360 2445 3787 X. V *Hl ,V'*7 XL 2821 2160 2100 2160 XII. 2130 2778 2OOO 2OOO JCXKI 3459 XIII. 1930 2565 1791 1788 3246 XIV. 2112 2793 XV. 1780 1680' 2533 XVI. 1928 2249 XVII. '738 I73I XVIII. '53° 1587 1580 1580 1580 XIX. 1320 1327 1321 1322 Dynasty Manetho's figures are wrong wherever we can check them; the names, too, are seriously faulty. In the XVlllth Dynasty he has too many names and few are clearly identifiable, while the numbers are incomprehensible. In the Xllth Dynasty the number of the kings is correct and many of the names can be justified, but the reign-lengths are nearly, if not quite, all wrong. The summations of years for the Dynasties XII. and XVIII. are likewise wrong. It seems, therefore, that the known texts of Manetho, serviceable as they have been in the recon- struction of Egyptian history, cannot be employed as a serious guide to the early chronology, since they are faulty wherever we can check them, even in the XXVIth Dynasty whose kings were so celebrated among the Greeks. There remain the astronomical data. Of these, the Sothic date furnished by a calendar in the Ebers Papyrus of the 9th year of Amenophis I. (when interpreted on the assump- tion stated above), and another at Elephantine of an uncertain year of Tethmosis III., tally well with each other (1550-1546, 1474-1470 B.C.) and with the Babylonian synchronism (not yet accurately determined) under Amenhotp IV. (Akhenaton). Another Sothic date of the 7th year of Senwosri III. on a Berlin papyrus from Kahun, similarly interpreted (1882-1878 B.C.), gives for the XHth Dynasty a range from 2000 to 1788 B.C. This (discovered by L. Borchardt in 1899) began about 1570 B.C., taking what seems to be the utmost interval that it permits, 220 years have to contain a crowd of kings of whom nearly 100 are already known by name from monuments and papyri, while fresh names are being added annually to the long list; the shattered fragments of the last columns in the Turin Papyrus show space for 150 or perhaps 180 kings of this period, apparently with- out reaching the XVIIth Dynasty. An estimate of 160 to 200 kings would there- fore not be excessive. The dates that have come down to us are very few; the only ones known from the Hyksos period are of a 1 2th and a 33rd year. In the Turin Papyrus two reign-lengths of less than a year, seven others of less than five years each, one of ten years and one of thirteen seem attributable to the XHIth and XlVth Dynasties. Prob- ably most of the reigns were short, as Manetho also decidedly indicates. It is possible that the compiler of the Turin Papyrus, who excluded contemporary reigns in the period between the Vlth and the XII th Dynasties, here admitted such; nor is a correspondingly large number of kings in so short a period without analogies in history. Professor Petrie, however, thinks it best, while accepting the evidence of the Sirius date, to suppose further that a whole Sothic period of 1460 years had passed in the interval, making a total of 1650 years for the six dynasties in place of 220 years. This, however, seems greatly in excess of probability, and several Egypto- logists familiar with excavation are willing to accept Meyer's figures on archaeological grounds. To the present writer it seems that Meyer's chronology provides a convenient working theory, but involves such an improbability in regard to the interval between the XII th and the XVIIIth Dynasties that the interpretation of the Sothic date on which it is founded must be viewed with suspicion^intil clear facts are found to corroborate it. Corroboration has been sought by Mahler, Sethe and Petrie in the dates of new moons, of warlike and other expeditions, and of high Nile, but their evidence so far is too vague and uncertain to affect the question seriously. It is remarkable that no records of eclipses are known from Egyptian documents. The interesting date of the harvest at El Bersha, quoted by Meyer in Breasted, Records, i. p. 48, confirms the Sothic date for the XJIth Dynasty in some measure, but it belongs to the same age, and therefore its evidence would be equally vitiated with the other by any subsequent alteration in the Egyptian calendar. Before the discovery of the Kahun Sothic date, Professor Petrie seems to offer a welcome ray, piercing the obscurity of early Egyptian chronology; guided by it the historian Ed. Meyer, and K. Sethe have framed systems of chronology in close agreement with each other, reaching back to the 1st Dynasty at about 3400 B.C. To Meyer is further due a calculation that the Egyptian calendar was introduced in 4241-4238 B.C.* Their results in general have been adopted by the " Berlin school," including Erman. Steindorff (in Baedeker's &typf) and Breasted in America. Never- theless many Egyptologists are unwill- ing to accept the new chronology, the chief obstacle being that it allows so short an interval for the six dynasties between the Xllth and the XVIIIth. If the Xllth Dynasty ended about 1700 B.C. and the XVIIIth 1 Meyer makes XIII. overlap XV. (Hyksos). and XIV. (Xoite), contemporary with XVI. (Hyksos) and XVII. (Theban). 1 Reisner (Early Dynastit Cemeteries, p. 126), from his work in the prehistoric cemeteries, believes that Egypt was too uncivilized at that early date to have performed this scientific feat. Dynasty. Wiedemann 1884. Meyer 1884. Petrie 1905-1906. Breasted 1906. Maspero 1904. XIX. 1490 1320 (1328), 1322 1350 XX. 1280 1180 1 202 1 200 XXI. 1100 1060 IIO2 1090 XXII. 975 93° 952 945 XXIII. Bio 755 745 XXIV. 720 721 718 XXV. 715 728 715 712 XXVI. 664 663 664 663 XXVII. 525 525 525 525 4*5 XXVIII. 415 4<>5 c. 405 XXIX. 408 399 399 XXX. 387 378 380 Orhus 350 342 342 put the end of the Xllth Dynasty at 2565 B.C.; in 1884 even Meyer had suggested 1930 B.C. as its minimum date, thus allowing 400 years at the least for the period from the Xlllth Dynasty to the XVIIth. Beyond the Xllth Dynasty estimates must again be vague The spacing of the years on the Palermo stone has given rise to some calculations for the early dynasties. Others are grounded on the dates of certain operations which are likely to have 8o EGYPT [HISTORY taken place at particular seasons of the year so that they can be roughly calculated on the Sothic basis, others on Manetho's figures, average lengths of reigns, evidence of the Turin Papyrus, &c. Table I. page 79 shows the chronology of the first nineteen dynasties, according to recent authorities, before and after the discovery of the Kahun Sothic date. The dates of the earlier dynasties in this table are always intended to be only approximate; for instance, Meyer in 1904 allowed an error of 100 years either of excess or deficiency in the dates he assigned to the dynasties from the Xth upwards. The other dynasties are dated as in Table II. by different authorities. See Ed. Meyer, Geschichte des Altertums, Bd. i. (Stuttgart, 1884), Geschichte des alien Agyptens (1887), Agyptische Chronologic (Abhandl. of Prussian Academy) (Berlin, 1904, with the supplement Nachtrdge zur dgypt. Chronologic, ib. 1907) ; K. Sethe, " Beitrage zur altesten Geschichte Agyptens " (in his Untersuchungen, Bd. ih.) (Leipzig, 1905); J. H. Breasted, Ancient' Records of Egypt, " His- torical Documents," vol. i. (Chicago, 1906); W. M. F. Petrie, A History of Egypt, vol. i. (London, 1884), vol. iii. (1905), Researches in Sinai (London, 1906); G. Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de ['orient (Paris, 1904); A. Wiedemann, Agyptische Geschichte (Gotha, 1884); articles by Mahler and others in the Zeitschrift fur dgyptische Sprache and Orientalistische Literaturzeitung (recent years). (F. LL. G.) III. HISTORY i. From the Earliest Times to the Moslem Conquest. In the absence of a strict chronology, the epochs of Pharaonic history are conveniently reckoned in dynasties according to Manetho's scheme, and these dynasties are grouped into longer periods: — the Old Kingdom (Dynasties I. to VIII.), including the Earliest Dynasties (I. to III.) and the Pyramid Period (Dynasties IV. to VI.); the Middle Kingdom (Dynasties IX. to XVII.), including the Heracleopolite Dynasties (IX. to X.) and the Hyksos Period (Dynasties XV. to XVII.); the New Empire (Dynasties XVIII. to XX.); the Deltaic Dynasties (Dynasties XXI. to XXXI.), including the Saite and Persian Periods (Dynasties XXVI. to XXXI.). The conquest by Alexander ushers in the Hellenistic age, comprising the periods of Ptolemaic and Roman rule. The Prehistoric Age. — One of the most striking features of recent Egyptology is the way in which the earliest ages of the civilization, before the conventional Egyptian style was formed, have been illustrated by the results of excavation. Until 1895 there seemed little hope of reaching the records of those remote times, although it was plain that the civilization had developed in the Nile valley for many centuries before the IVth Dynasty, beyond which the earliest known monuments scarcely reached. Since that year, however, there has been a steady flow of dis- coveries in prehistoric and early historic cemeteries, and, partly in consequence of this, monuments already known, such as the annals of the Palermo stone, have been made articulate for the beginnings of history in Egypt. It is probable that certain rudely chipped flints, so-called eoliths, in the alluvial gravels (formed generally at the mouth of wadis opening on to the Nile) at Thebes and elsewhere, are the work of primitive man; but it has been shown that such are produced also by natural forces in the rush of torrents. On the surface of the desert, at the borders of the valley, palaeo- lithic implements of well-defined form are not uncommon, and bear the marks of a remote antiquity. In some cases they appear to lie where they were chipped on the sites of flint factories. Geologists and anthropologists are not yet agreed on the question whether the climate and condition of the country have under- gone large changes since these implements were deposited. As yet none have been found in such association with animal remains as would help in deciding their age, nor have any implements been discovered in rock-shelters or in caves. Of neolithic remains, arrowheads and other implements are found in some numbers in the deserts. In the Fayflm region, about the borders of the ancient Lake of Moeris and beyond, they are particularly abundant and interesting in their forms. But their age is uncertain; some may be contemporary with the advanced culture of the Xllth Dynasty in the Nile valley. Definite history on the other hand has been gained from the wonderful series of " prehistoric " cemeteries excavated by J. de Morgan, Petrie, Reisner and others on the desert edgings of the cultivated alluvium. The succession of archaeological types revealed in them has been tabulated by Petrie in his Diospolis Parva; and the detailed publication of Reisner's unusually careful researches is bringing much new light on the questions involved, amongst other things showing the exact point at which the " prehistoric " series merges into the 1st Dynasty, for, as- might be surmised, in many cases the prehistoric cemeteries continued in use under the earliest dynasties. The finest pottery, often painted but all hand-made without the wheel, belongs to the prehistoric period; so also do the finest flint implements, which, in the delicacy and exactitude of their form and flaking, surpass all that is known from other countries. Metal seems to be entirely absent from the earliest type of graves, but immediately thereafter copper begins to appear (bronze is hardly to be found before the Xllth Dynasty). The paintings on the vases show boats driven by oars and sails rudely figured, and the boats bear emblematic standards or ensigns. The cemeteries are found throughout Upper and Middle Egypt, but as yet have not been met with in the Delta or on its borders. This might be accounted for by the inhabitants of Lower Egypt having practised a different mode of dis- posing of the dead, or by their cemeteries being differently placed. Tradition, mythology and later customs make it possible to recover a scrap of the political history of that far-off time. Menes, the founder of the 1st Dynasty, united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. In the prehistoric period, therefore, these two realms were separate. The capital of Upper Egypt was Nekheb, now represented by the ruins of El Kab, with the royal residence across the river at Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) ; that of Lower Egypt was at Buto (Puto or Dep) in the marshes, with the royal residence in the quarter called Pe. NekhSbi, goddess of El Kab, represented the Upper or Southern Kingdom, which was also under the tutelage of the god Seth, the goddess Buto and the god Horus similarly presiding over the Lower Kingdom. The royal god in the palace of each was a hawk or Horus. The spirits of the deceased kings were honoured respectively as the jackal-headed spirits of Nekhen and the hawk-headed spirits of Pe. As we hear also of the " spirits of On " it is probable that Heliopolis was at one time capital of a kingdom. In after days the prehistoric kings were known as " Worshippers of Horus " and in Manetho's list they are the vacves " Dead," and ^poxs " Heroes," being looked upon as intermediate between the divine dynasties and those of human kings. It is impossible to esti- mate the duration of the period represented by the pre- historic cemeteries; that the two kingdoms existed throughout unchanged is hardly probable. According to the somatologist Elliott Smith, the most im- portant change in the physical character of the people of Upper Egypt, in the entire range of Egyptian archaeology, took place at the beginning of the dynastic period; and he accounts for this by the mingling of the Lower with the Upper Egyptian popula- tion, consequent on the uniting of the two countries under one rule. From remains of the age of the IVth Dynasty he is able to define to some extent the type of the population of Lower Egypt as having a better cranial and muscular development than that of Upper Egypt, probably through immigration from Syria. The advent of the dynasties, however, produced a quickening rather than a dislocation in the development of civilization. It is doubtful whether we possess any writing of the prehistoric age. A few names of the kings of Lower Egypt are preserved in the first line of the Palermo stone, but no annals are attached to them. Petrie considers that one of the kings buried at Abydos, provisionally called Nar-mer and whose real name may be Mer or Beza, preceded Menes; of him there are several inscribed records, notably a magnificent carved and inscribed HISTORY] EGYPT 81 slate palette found at Hieraconpolis, with figures of the king and his vizier, war-standards and prisoners. To identify him with Bezau (Boethos) of the Hnd Dynasty runs counter to much archaeological evidence. Sethe places him next after Menes and some would identify him with that king. Another inscribed palette may be pre-dynastic; it perhaps mentions a king named " Scorpion." Tkt OU Kingdom. — The names of a number of kings attribut- able to the 1st Dynasty are known from their tombs at Abydos. Unfortunately, they are almost exclusively Horus titles in place of the personal names by which they were recorded in the lists of Abydos and Manetho; some, however, of the latter are found, and prove that the scribes of the New Kingdom were unable to read them correctly. Important changes and improvements took place in the writing even during the 1st Dynasty. The personal name of Menes i*""* is given by one only of many relics of a king whose Horus-name was Aha, " the Fighter." Doubts have been expressed about the identification with Menes, but it is strongly corroborated by the very archaic style of the remains. The name of Aha (Menes) was found in two tombs, one at Nag&da north of Thebes and nearly opposite the road to the Red Sea, the other at Abydos. Manetho makes the 1st Dynasty Thinite, this being the capital of the nome in which Abydos lay. Upper Egypt always had precedence over Lower Egypt, and it seems clear that Menes came from the former and conquered the latter. According to tradition he founded Memphis which lay on the frontier of his conquest; probably he resided there as well as at Abydos; at any rate relics of one of the later kings of the 1st Dynasty have already been recognized in its vast necropolis. Of the eight kings of the 1st Dynasty, three — the fifth, sixth and seventh in the Ramesside list of Abydos — are positively identified by tomb-remains from Abydos, and others are scarcely less certain. Two of the kings have also left tablets at the copper and turquoise mines of Wadi Maghara in Sinai. The royal tombs are built of brick, but one of them, that of Usaphais, had its floor of granite from Elephantine. They must have been filled with magnificent furniture and provisions of every kind, including annual record-tablets of the reigns, carved in ivory and ebony. From a fragment on the Palermo stone it is clear that material existed as late as the Vth Dynasty for a brief note of the height of the Nile and other particulars in each year of the reign of these kings. The Ilnd Dynasty of Manetho appears to have been separated from the 1st even on the Palermo stone; it also was Thinite, and the tombs of several of its nine (?) kings were found at Abydos. The Illrd Dynasty is given as Memphite by Manetho. Two of the kings built huge mastaba-tombs at Bet Khallaf near Abydos, but the architect and learned scribe Imhotp designed for one of these two kings, named Zoser, a second and mightier monument at Memphis, the great step-pyramid of Sakkara. In Ptolemaic times Imhotp was deified, and the traditional import- ance of Zoser is shown by a forged grant of the Dodecaschoenus to the cataract god Khnum, purporting to be from his reign, but in reality dating from the Ptolemaic age. With Snefru, at the end of this dynasty, we reach the beginning of Egyptian history as it was known before the recent discoveries. Monuments and written records are henceforth more numerous and important, and the Palermo annals show a fuller scale of record. The events in the three years that are preserved include a successful raid upon the negroes, and the construction of ships and gates of cedar-wood which must have been brought from the forests of the Lebanon. Snefru also set up a tablet at Wadi Maghara in Sinai. He built two pyramids, one of them at Medum in steps, the other, probably in the perfected form, at Dahshur, both lying between Memphis and the Fayum. Pyramids did not cease to be built in Egypt till the New Kingdom; but from the end of the Illrd to the Vlth Dynasty is pre-eminently the time when the royal pyramid in stone was the chief monument left by each successive king. Zoser and Snefru have been already noticed. The personal name enclosed in a cartouche d3 is henceforth the commonest title of the king. We now reach the IVth Dynasty containing the famous names of Cheops (?.».), Chephren (Khafrfi) and Mycer- inus (Menkeurfi), builders respectively of the Great, the Second and the Third Pyramids of Giza. In the best art of this time there was a grandeur which was never again attained. Perhaps the noblest example of Egyptian sculpture in the round is a diorite statue of Chephren, one of several found by Mariette in the so-called Temple of the Sphinx. This " temple " proves to be a monumental gate at the lower end of the great causeway leading to the plateau on which the pyramids were built. A king Dedefre', between Cheops and Chephren, built a pyramid at Abu-Roash. Shepscskaf is one of the last in the dynasty. Tablets of most of these kings have been found at the mines of Wadi Maghara. In the neighbourhood of the pyramids there are numerous mastabas of the court officials with fine sculpture in the chapels, and a few decorated tombs from the end of this centralized dynasty of absolute monarchs are known in Upper Egypt. A tablet which describes Cheops as the builder of various shrines about the Great Sphinx has been shown to be a priestly forgery, but the Sphinx itself may have been carved out of the rock under the splendid rule of the IVth Dynasty. The Vth Dynasty is said to be of Elephantine, but this must be a mistake. Its kings worshipped Re, the sun, rather than Horus, as their ancestor, and the title son of the Sun ' began to be written by them before the cartouche containing the personal name, while another " solar " cartouche, containing a name compounded with R6, followed the title " king of Upper and Lower Egypt." Sahur6 and the other kings of the dynasty built magnificent temples with obelisks dedicated to R6, one of which, that of NeuserrS at Abusir, has been thoroughly explored. The marvellous tales of the Westcar Papyrus, dating from the Middle Kingdom, narrate how three of the kings were born of a priestess of Re. The pyramids of several of the kings are known. The early ones are at Abusir, and the best preserved of the pyramid temples, that of Sahure, excavated by the German Orient-Gesellschaft, in its architecture and sculptured scenes has revealed an astonishingly complete development of art and architecture as well as of warlike enterprise by sea and land at this remote period; the latest pyramid belonging to the Vth Dynasty, that of Unas at Sakkara, is inscribed with long ritual and magical texts. Exquisitely sculptured tombs of this time are very numerous at Memphis and are found throughout Upper Egypt. Of work in the traditional temples of the country no trace remains, probably because, being in limestone, it has all perished. The annals of the Palermo stone were engraved and added to during this dynasty; the chief events recorded for the time are gifts and endowments for the temples. Evidently priestly influence was strong at the court. Expeditions to Sinai and Puoni (Punt) are commemorated on tablets. The Vlth Dynasty if not more vigorous was more articulate; inscribed tombs are spread throughout the country. The most active of its kings was the third, named Pepi or Phiops, from whose pyramid at Sakkara the capital, hitherto known as " White Walls," derived its later name of Memphis (MN-NFR, Mempi); a tombstone from Abydos celebrates the activity of a certain Una during the reigns of Pepi and his successor in organiz- ing expeditions to the Sinai peninsula and south Palestine, and in transporting granite from Elephantine and other quarries. Herkhuf, prince of Elephantine and an enterprising leader of caravans to the south countries both in Nubia and the Libyan oases, flourished under Merenrg and Pepi II. called NeferkerC. On one occasion he brought home a dwarf dancer from the Sudan, described as being like one brought from Puoni in the time of the fifth-dynasty king Assa; this drew from the youthful Pepi II. an enthusiastic letter which was engraved in full upon the facade of Herkhuf's tomb. The reign of the last-named king, begun early, lasted over ninety years, a fact so long EGYPT [HISTORY remembered that even Manetho attributes to him ninety-four years; its length probably caused the ruin of the dynasty. The local princelings and monarchs had been growing in culture, wealth and power, and after Pepi II. an ominous gap in the monuments, pointing to civil war, marks the end of the Old Kingdom. The Vllth and Vlllth Dynasties are said to have been Memphite, but of them no record survives beyond some names of kings in the lists. The Middle Kingdom. — The long Memphite rule was broken by the IXth and Xth Dynasties, of Heracleopolis Magna (Hnes) in Middle Egypt. Kheti or Achthoes was apparently a favourite name with the kings, but they are very obscure. They may have spread their rule by conquest over Upper Egypt and then overthrown the Memphite dynasty. The chief monuments of the period are certain inscribed tombs at Assiut; it appears that one of the kings, whose praenomen was Mikere, supported by a fleet and army from Upper Egypt, and especially by the prince of Assiut, was restored to his paternal city of Heracleopolis, from which he had probably been driven out; his pyramid, however, was built in the old royal necropolis at Memphis. Later the princes of Thebes asserted their independence and founded the Xlth Dynasty, which pushed its frontiers northwards until finally it occupied the whole country. Its kings were named Menthotp, from Mont, one of the gods of Thebes; others, perhaps sub-kings, were named Enyotf (Antef). They were buried at Thebes, whence the coffins of several were obtained by the early collectors of the i gth century. Nibh&tp Menthotp I. probably established his rule over all Egypt. The funerary temple of Nebhepre Menthotp III., the last but one of these kings, has been excavated by the Egypt Exploration Fund at Deir el Bahri, and must have been a magnificent monument. His successor Sankhkere Menthotp IV. is known to have sent an expedition by the Red Sea to Puoni. The XHth Dynasty is the central point of the Middle King- dom, to which the decline of the Memphite and the rise of the Heracleopolite dynasty mark the transition, while the growth of Thebes under the Xlth Dynasty is its true starting-point. Monuments of the Xllth Dynasty are abundant and often of splendid design and workmanship, whereas previously there had been little produced since the Vlth Dynasty that was not half barbarous. Although not much of the history of the XHth Dynasty is ascertained, the Turin Papyrus and many dated inscriptions fix the succession and length of reign of the eight kings very accurately. The troubled times that the kingdom had passed through taught the long-lived monarchs the pre- caution of associating a competent successor on the throne. The nomarchs and the other feudal chiefs were inclined to strengthen themselves at the expense of their neighbours; a firm hand was required to hold them in check and distribute the honours as they were earned by faithful service.. -The tombs of the most favoured and wealthy princes are magnificent, par- ticularly those of certain families in Middle Egypt at Beni Hasan, El Bersha, Assiut and Deir Rlfa, and it is probable that each had a court and organization within his nome like that of the royal palace in miniature. Eventually, in the reigns of Senwosri III. and Amenemhe' III., the succession of strong kings appears to have centralized all authority very completely. The names in the dynasty are Amenemhi (Ammenemes) and Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen or Senusert). The latter seems to be the origin of the Sesostris (q.v.) and Sesoosis of the legends. Amenemhe' I., the first king, whose connexion with the previous dynasty is not known, reigned for thirty years, ten of them being in partnership with his son Senwosri I. He had to fight for his throne and then reorganize the country, removing his capital or residence from Thebes to a central situation near Lisht about 25 m. south of Memphis. His monuments are widespread in Egypt, the quarries and mines in the desert as far as Sinai bear witness to his great activity, and we know of an expedition which he made against the Nubians. The " Instructions of AmenemhS to his son Senwosri," whether really his own or a later composi- tion, refer to these things, to his care for his subjects, and to the ingratitude with which he was rewarded, an attempt on his life having been made by the trusted servants in his own palace. The story of Sinuhi is the true or realistic history of a soldier who, having overheard the secret intelligence of Amenemhe's death, fled in fear to Palestine or Syria and there became rich in the favour of the prince of the land; growing old, however, he successfully sued for pardon from Senwosri and permission to return and die in Egypt. Senwosri I. was already the executive partner in the time of the co-regency, warring with the Libyans and probably in the Sudan. After Amenemh^'s death he fully upheld the greatness of the dynasty in his long reign of forty-five years. The obelisk of Heliopolis is amongst his best-known monuments, and the damming of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) must have been in progress in his reign. He built a temple far up the Nile at Wadi Haifa and there set up a stela commemorating his victories over the tribes of Nubia. The fine tombs of Ameni at Beni Hasan and of Hepzefa at Assiut belong to his reign. The pyramids of both father and son are at Lisht. Amenemhe' II. was buried at Dahshur; he was followed by Senwosri II., whose pyramid is at Illahun at the mouth of the Fayum. In his reign were executed the fine paintings in the tomb of Khnemhotp at Beni Hasan, which include a remarkable scene of Semitic Bedouins bringing eye-paint to Egypt from the eastern deserts. In Manetho he is identified with Sesostris (see above), but Senwosri I., and still more Senwosri III., have a better claim to this distinction. The latter warred in Palestine and in Nubia, and marked the south frontier of his kingdom by a statue and stelae at Semna beyond the Second Cataract. Near his pyramid was discovered the splendid jewelry of some princesses of his family (see JEWELRY ad init.). The tomb of Thethotp at El Bersha, celebrated for the scene of the transport of a colossus amongst its paintings, was finished in this reign. Amenemhe III. completed the work of Lake Moeris and began a series of observations of the height of the inundation at Semna which was continued by his successors. In his long reign of forty-six years he built a pyramid at Dahshur, and at Hawara near the Lake of Moeris another pyramid together with the Labyrinth which seems to have been an enormous funerary temple attached to the pyramid. His name was remembered in the Fayum during the Graeco-Roman period and his effigy worshipped there as Pera-marres, i.e. Pharaoh Marres (Marres being his praenomen graecized). Amenemhe IV.'s reign was short, and the dynasty ended with a queen Sebeknefru (Scemiophris), whose name is found in the scanty remains of the Labyrinth. The XHth Dynasty numbered eight rulers and lasted for 213 years. Great as it was, it created no empire outside the Nile valley, and its most imposing monument, which according to the testimony of the ancients rivalled the pyramids, is now represented by a vast stratum of chips. The history of the following period down to the rise of the New Empire is very obscure. Manetho gives us the XIHth (Dios- polite) Dynasty, the XlVth (Xoite from Xois in Lower Egypt), the XVth and XVIth (Hyksos) and the XVIIth (Diospolite), but his names are lost except for the Hyksos kings. The Abydos tablet ignores all between the XHth and XVIIIth Dynasties. The Turin Papyrus preserves many names on its shattered fragments, and the monuments are for ever adding to the list, but it is difficult to assign them accurately to their places. The Hyksos names can in some cases be recognized by their foreign aspect, the peculiar style of the scarabs on which they are en- graved or by resemblances to those recorded in Manetho. The kings of the XVIIth Dynasty too are generally recognizable by the form of their name and other circumstances. Manetho indicates marvellous crowding for the XHIth and XlVth Dynasties, but it seems better to suggest a total duration of 300 or 400 years for the whole period than to adopt Meyer's estimate of about 210 years (see above, Chronology). Amongst the kings of the XIHth Dynasty (including perhaps the XlVth), not a few are represented by granite statues of colossal size and fine workmanship, especially at Thebes and Tanis, some by architectural fragments, some by graffiti on the HISTORY) EGYPT rocks about the First Cataract. Some few certainly reigned over all Egypt. Sebkhotp (Sekhotp, £ox